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SENT     BY 

BENJ.    IDE    WHEELER 
BERKELEY 

CALIFORNIA 


> 

<  L^-*stS*l 


/ 


CONCEPTS 

OF    THE 

Electrical  Phenomena  of  Planetary  Systems 

BY 

GEORGE  ADAM,  M.D. 

Author  of  "Eledlricity,  the  Chemistry  of  Ether";  "  Radio- Activity";  "From 
Ether  to  the  Physiologic  Unit";  "  The  Physiologic  Unit";  "  Medicinal 
Vibration";  "  Origin  and  Character  of  X-Rays  ";  National- 
ization of  the  Practice  of  Medicine",  Etc. 


Monograph   Applying  a  Fundamental    Hypothesis 
to  Astronomical  Fads. 


(  ILLUSTRATED  ) 


Containing: 


THE  HYPOTHESIS. 

THE  SOLO-PLANETARY  SPACE. 

A  CYCLE  OF  ENERGY. 

A  GREATER  CYCLE. 

A  CYCLE  OF  LIFE. 

DYNAMICS   OF  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

COMETS. 

THE   MOON. 

COSMIC  REFLECTIONS. 


Strenuitas. 


UNIVE 

%-,- 
..  •  '  -: 


,,  V 


COPYRIGHT,  APRIL,  1905. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CALIFORNIA,  U.  S.  A. 

DR.   GEORGE  ADAM, 

1196  GREEN  STREET 

MAY,  1905. 


(REGISTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON,  ENG.) 


PHILLIPS  &  VAN  ORDEN  Co.,  PRINTERS; 

508  CLAY  STREET, 
SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.,  U.  S.  A. 


THE  HYPOTHESIS. 

The  desire  of  the  writer  to  generalize  a  Hypothesis, 
which  he  considers  fundamental,  prompted  him  to  apply 
it  to  Astronomical  Facts.  In  approaching  the  subject,  it  is 
imperative  to  build  up  from  the  central  idea,  although  it 
necessitates  traveling  from  the  Infinitesimal  to  the  In- 
«  f.hp  lentil  of  this  article  demands 


ERRATA 


Page  40,  Caption,  read:     Andromeda. 

Page  35,  line  6,  read:     photometer. 

Page  39,  line  27,  read:     than  instead  of  that. 


or  no  they  coincide  wnn  me 
writer  concludes  that  the  ether  molecule  is  composed 
of  two  fundamental  units  or  atoms;  that  these  atoms 
are  equal  in  quantity,  and  possess  inherently  such  op- 
posite properties  as  to  entirely  neutralize  each  other — 
that  they  are  quantitatively  equal  but  qualitatively 
opposed;  moreover,  that  ether  atoms  are  identical 
with,  or  equivalent  to  the  fundamental  units  of 
all  matter.  If  we  concede  that  the  ether  molecule  is  com- 
posed of  two  fundamental  units  (which  may  be  termed 
positive  and  negative)  having  a  contact  surface  of  maxi- 
mum extent,  with  almost  if  not  complete  immolecular 
neutralization,  it  is  evident  that  we  can  formulate  a  con- 


COPYRIGHT,  APRIL,  1905. 


508  CLAY  STREET, 
SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL.,  U.  S.  A. 


J        A 

t  A  *  i       H'  hii3uure3^^i^u 

3  M  V       -4^^^      // 

/ 


THE  HYPOTHESIS. 

The  desire  of  the  writer  to  generalize  a  Hypothesis, 
which  he  considers  fundamental,  prompted  him  to  apply 
it  to  Astronomical  Facts.  In  approaching  the  subject,  it  is 
imperative  to  build  up  from  the  central  idea,  although  it 
necessitates  traveling  from  the  Infinitesimal  to  the  In- 
finitely Great;  and  as  the  length  of  this  article  demands 
conciseness  in  its  parts,  this  quality  must  be  adhered  to 
even  at  the  risk  of  being  judged  as  arbitrarily  stating  the 
conclusions.  However,  no  statement  will  be  made  but  such 
as  the  writer  is  prepared  to  support  by  deductive  reasoning 
and  relative  facts. 

ETHEE.  Elsewhere  the  writer  has  formulated  the 
hypothesis :  "That  Ether  is  the  simplest  form  of  matter, 
that  it  is  molecular,  and  that  it  has  a  chemistry."  Having 
adopted  this  hypothesis,  as  an  arbiter,  our  effort  will  be  to 
follow  its  inductive  lead  over  the  stepping  stones  of  relevant 
facts,  and  to  form  our  conclusions  irrespectively  of  whether 
or  no  they  coincide  with  the  accepted  theories.  The 
writer  concludes  that  the  ether  molecule  is  composed 
of  two  fundamental  units  or  atoms;  that  these  atoms 
are  equal  in  quantity,  and  possess  inherently  such  op- 
posite properties  as  to  entirely  neutralize  each  other — 
that  they  are  quantitatively  equal  but  qualitatively 
opposed;  moreover,  that  ether  atoms  are  identical 
with,  or  equivalent  to  the  fundamental  units  of 
all  matter.  If  we  concede  that  the  ether  molecule  is  com- 
posed of  two  fundamental  units  (which  may  be  termed 
positive  and  negative)  having  a  contact  surface  of  maxi- 
mum extent,  with  almost  if  not  complete  immolecular 
neutralization,  it  is  evident  that  we  can  formulate  a  con- 


4  HYPOTHESIS. 

ception  of  the  character  of  the  ether  molecule,  and  concur- 
rently gain  a  clear  understanding  of  the  properties,  or  ab- 
sence of  properties,  of  the  substance  ether  itself. 

Figure  1  indicates  ether  molecules,  each  composed  of  two 
units  or  atoms,  the  central  nucleus  inherently  representing 
the  principle  attraction  or  concentrativeness,  and  the  outer 
film  inherently  representing  the  principle  repulsion  or 
diffusibility.  The  central  atom  consists  of  purely  positive 
matter,  and  the  outer  atom  of  purely  negative  matter,  thus 
clearly  differentiating  ether  atoms  from  those  of  ponder- 
able matter,  in  as  much  as  the  latter  are  composed  of  mixed 
units.  Ether  atoms  may  be  defined,  as  the  ultimate  quan- 
tities of  matter  or  force  which  no  other  force  can  split  up. 
The  size  of  the  positive  atom  is  determined  by  the  resist- 
ance of  its  inherent  concentrativeness  to  dissociation  by 
external  forces,  and  the  size  of  the  negative  atom  is  deter- 
mined by  the  size  of  the  positive  atom,  or  by  the  amount 
of  negative  matter  which  is  neutralizable  by  the  positive 
atom.  The  writer  believes  that  the  universe  is  constructed 
of  such  units. 


FIG.  I.  Ether  Molecules:  The  dark  nuclei  denote  purely 
Positive  Matter  of  concentrative  character;  and  the  sur- 
rounding gray  films  denote  purely  Negative  Matter  of  dif- 
fusive character.  When  dissociated  the  atoms  constitute 
Electric  Matter.  It  is  important  to  observe  that  no  fields 
of  induction  surround  ether  molecules;  although  inter- 
spaces are  shown.  The  relative  position  of  the  atoms  as 
indicated  corresponds  to  the  differential  distribution  of 
matter  in  space,  and  to  the  inherent  character  of  the  units. 


,  suppose  that  the  two  atoms  of  an  ether  molecule, 
from  th'ir  relative  position  and  from  the  diminutive  size  of 
the  molecule,  have  such  surface  contact  as  to  allow  complete 


ETHER.  5 

neutralization  of  each  other  according  to  the  law  that  forces 
react  inversely  to  the  square  of  distance,  then  surely  extrin- 
sic forces,  in  general,  must  be  excluded  from  the  ether  mole- 
cule, and  accordingly  it  is  imponderable  and  insensible. 
Again,  suppose  that  molecules  of  other  matter  have  not  an 
equal  number  of  positive  and  negative  units  within  their 
construction,  and  the  molecules  being  of  larger  size,  their 
units  cannot  have  maximum  surface  contact,  then  surely, 
according  to  the  same  law,  these  molecules  are  sensible  and 
ponderable.  Thus  matter  is  in  general  differentiated  into 
two  great  divisions :  Ether,  insensible  and  imponderable ; 
Other  matter,  sensible  and  ponderable.  An  important 
consideration  in  the  indicated  (Fig.  1)  structure  of  ether 
molecules  is  the  apposition  of  negative  molecular  sur- 
faces, which  represent  repulsion.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  ether,  being  the  medium  of  transmission  of  heat  and 
light,  is  in  this  respect  sensible  matter. 

The  universal  equilibrium  demands  the  ether  condition, 
and  abnormally  large  ether  molecules  would  immediately 
divide  by  polar  attraction,  and  equilibrate  as  smaller  mole- 
cular masses.  Ether  molecules  above  the  normal  size  would 
form  ponderable  matter,  and  are  impossibilities.  They 
must  be  the  most  minute  of  all  molecules.  Let  us  see : 
In  an  electrified  vacuum  tube,  with  the  greatest  decrement 
of  pressure  consistent  with  electric  conduction,  there  is 
found  in  the  cathode  rays  a  positive  particle  or  "electron" 
estimated  to  be  1/2000  the  mass  of  the  hydrogen  mole- 
cule. This  particle  must  be  the  ultimate  of  ponderable 
tenuity,  and  as  it  possesses  a  free  potential,  its  constituents 
must  be  equal  to  three  ether  units  or  atoms  (two  positives 
and  one  negative).  If  constituted  of  a  larger  number  it 
would  be  still  reducible,  and  its  free  potential  denotes  that 
it  cannot  be  constituted  of  a  less  number.  As  the  ether 
molecule  possesses  two  units  its  size  must  be  2/3  of  that 


6  HYPOTHESIS. 

of  the  electron,  or  1/3000  the  mass  of  the  hydrogen 
molecule.  When  the  cathode  particle  or  electron  is  united 
with  two  negative  ether  atoms  it  is  electrically  negative, 
and  of  such  charged  particles  the  cathode  rays  must  be 
constituted  when  under  extreme  decrement  of  pressure. 

From  these  conceptions  we  must  conclude  that  the  sub- 
stance ether  is  imponderable;  that  it  possesses  no  fric- 
tional  or  cohesive  properties;  offers  no  (or  a  minimum) 
resistance  to  bodies  passing  through  it;  is  extremely  elas- 
tic; is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity;  is  incapable  of  being 
projected,  not  having  weight ;  that  it  is  compressible  by  the 
attractions  and  repulsions  of  its  atomic  units  (polarization) 
(Fig.  2) ;  that  its  units  possess  the  property  of  impenetra- 
bility or  extensibility ;  that  owing  to  its  molecular  construc- 
tion being  of  two  units  qualitatively  opposed  and  quanti- 
tatively equal,  it  is  capable  of  transmitting  force  without 
neutralization  or  modification  of  the  force  transmitted. 
However,  radiating  forces  offer  resistance  to  other  radia- 
tions independently  of  the  quality  of  the  medium. 

It  must  be  conceded  that  all  forces  may  be  modified  by 
the  relation  of  matter  to  space.  Thus  positive  and  nega- 
tive chemic  elements  which  synthetically  react  under  cer- 
tain degrees  of  pressure  may  be  even  dissociated  under 
greater  decrement  of  pressure.  We  might  allow  that  the 
forces  of  gravitation  will  act  slightly  on  the  substance  ether, 
but  that  this  force  is  neutralized  by  the  spacial  equilibrium, 
or  the  relation  of  the  whole  of  matter  to  the  whole  of 
space,  just  as  chemic  affinity  is  neutralized  in  a 
partial  vacuum.  Whether  we  contend  that  gravitation 
is  wholly  excluded  from  the  system  of  the  ether  molecule 
by  the  immolecular  neutralization,  or  that  it  enters  and  is 
counteracted  by  the  spacial  equilibrium,  we  must  inevitably 
conclude  that  the  substance  ether  is  imponderable.  An 


ELECTRICITY.  7 

imponderable  substance  will  occupy  all  space  not  occupied 
by  other  matter.  This  substance  therefore  fills  the  inter- 
stellar and  intermolecular  spaces,  and  is  the  medium  of 
conveying  force  between  the  potentialized  bodies  winch  we 
call  suns  and  planets. 

ELECTEICITY.  Although  the  ether  molecule  is  gen- 
erally insensible  to  extrinsic  forces,  yet  under  intense  con- 
ditions it  is  split  up,  and  although  the  substance  ether  is 
chemically  at  zero  potential,  when  dissociated  its  atoms  pos- 
sess the  greatest  of  all  potentials — the  potential  of  elec- 
tricity. We  must  regard  electricity  as  being  related  to  ether 
as  chemic  action  is  to  other  matter.  Moreover,  there 
must  be  an  interaction  between  electric  matter  and  pon- 
derable matter.  We  must  regard  ether  atoms  as  chemic 
ultimates  reacting  with  each  other  and  with  ponderable 
matter  according  to  the  law  of  affinities,  and  we  must  re- 
gard their  dissociation  and  association  as  constituting  elec- 
tricity in  its  broadest  sense.  The  important  consideration 
is  that  in  a  positive  electric  charge  we  have  a  mass  of  purely 
positive  matter,  and  that  in  a  negative  charge  we  have  a 
mass  of  purely  negative  matter  (Fig.  1),  and  that  we 
have  only  to  study  the  differential  properties  of  these 
masses  to  determine  the  character  of  positive  and  negative 
chemic  elements  in  all  varieties  of  mixed  or  ponderable 
matter.  Thus,  ether  atoms,  as  moving  matter,  associate 
and  dissociate  with  other  forms  of  matter  according  to 
chemic  laws.  When  the  fundamental  units  of  matter  are 
united,  positive  to  negative,  with  maximum  surface-con- 
tact, they  have  a  minimum  potential  and  form  the  sub- 
stance Ether.  When  the  ether  atoms  are  separated  they 
form  Electric  Matter,  and  at  a  minimum  distance  have  a 
maximum  potential.  By  following  these  lines  of  thought 


8  HYPOTHESIS. 

further  (impossible  in  an  article  of  limited  extent),  it 
will  be  clear  that  Electric,  Chemic  and  Physical  actions 
are  fundamentally  identical,  all  being  subject  to  the  same 
great  law  of  ultimate  units  reacting  inversely  to  the  square 
of  distance. 

Electric  matter,  however,  must  not  be  confounded  with 
so-called  "electrons"  or  "corpuscles,"  which  are  ponderable 
matter,  and  which  may  be  electrified  or  non-electrified,  as 
any  other  ponderable  matter  may  be.  A  correct  conception 
of  electric  matter — ether  atoms — is  essential  to  the  com- 
prehension of  the  questions  to  be  considered.* 

PONDERABLE  MATTEE.  If  it  be  shown  that  the 
laws  of  force  can  be  generalized,  then  surely  all  forces  must 
be  fundamentally  identical ;  and  as  force  is  the  property  of 
matter,  then  all  matter  must  have  identical  units.  Pon- 
derable matter  may  be  thus  diiferentiated  into  two  great 
divisions  which  accord  with  the  divisions  of  electric  matter 
or  ether  atoms :  ( 1 )  Ponderable  positive  matter,  in  whose 
molecular  construction  positive  or  concentrative  funda- 
mental units  predominate;  (2)  ponderable  negative  mat- 
ter in  whose  molecular  construction  negative  or  diffusible 
fundamental  units  predominate.  To  illustrate:  If  a 
given  number  of  fundamental  negative  units  are  combined 

*In  his  work  entitled  "Electricity  the  Chemistry  of  Ether," 
the  writer  has  followed  the  lead  of  his  hypothesis  through 
Electricity,  Chemistry,  Physics,  and  Physiology,  and  his  re- 
searches have  convinced  him  that  upon  the  basis  of  this  hypoth- 
esis, reiterated  in  this  article,  a  generalization  is  possible. 
On  the  other  hand  it  is  clear  that  facts,  even  of  Radioactivity 
or  of  Electrified  Vacua,  do  not  support  the  Electron  Theory  of 
Electricity.  The  writer  is  fully  aware  that  only  the  most  dili- 
gent and  extensive  inquiry  (not  confined  to  one  scientific 
branch)  will  enable  one  to  correctly  value  a  hypothetical  truth; 
while  at  a  glance  he  seemingly  determines  the  importance  of 
a  discovery  of  fact:  Hence  innumerable  theories  when  there 
should  be  but  one;  and  hence  an  incomprehensible  labyrinth  of 
laws  when  there  should  be  but  few. 


PONDERABLE  MATTER.  9 

with  a  larger  number  of  fundamental  positive  units,  in  such 
relative  position  as  to  offer  resistance  to  dissociating  in- 
ihiences,  according  to  the  law  that  forces  react  inversely  as 
the  square  of  distance,  then  the  combination  is  a  molecule 
of  positive  character.  Conversely  a  molecule  of  negative 
character  may  be  constructed.  The  difference  between  the 
number  of  positive  and  negative  units  which  enter  into  the 
construction  of  the  molecule  constitutes  molecular  poten- 
tial. It  will  thus  be  seen  that  molecular  potential  and 
electric  potential  are  identical  in  as  much  as  they  depend 
upon  the  unneutralized  fundamental  units;  and  that  elec- 
tric and  ponderable  matter  have  reciprocal  action  just  as 
two  forms  of  ponderable  matter  react  on  each  other.  It  is 
conclusive  that  a  molecular  potential  will  possess  a  field  of 
induction  just  as  an  electric  potential  possesses  a  field  of 
induction,  and  that  we  have  only  to  study  the  features 
of  the  latter  to  determine  the  character  of  the  former;  al- 
lowing for  such  modifications  as  are  incident  to  molecular 
conditions.  The  writer  is  aware  that  these  conceptions  are 
not  in  accord  with  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases  accepted 
by  scientists;  and  that  he  contradicts  the  idea  that  atoms 
have  movements  independent  of  those  of  their  molecules. 
That  the  molecule  is  the  ultimate  vibratory  unit  can  be 
demonstrated  physiologically  if  not  physically.  An  atom 
can  no  more  move  independently  of  its  molecule  than  a  part 
of  an  electric  charge  can  vibrate  independently  of  the 
whole  charge.  Any  part  of  an  electric  charge  can  become 
an  independent  charge,  and  an  atom  can  become  a  mole- 
cule. The  atomic  and  molecular  conditions  are  mutually 
transformable,  but  the  molecular  condition  is  the  motor 
unity;  and  the  motion  must  be  initiated  by  extrinsic 
stimulus. 


10 


HYPOTHESIS. 


»     I         ' 

xMtjv. 

x-  v*++*  '  x 


B 


FIG.  2.  Electric  and  Molecular  Potentials:  A  and  B,  insu- 
lated and  electrically  charged  bodies  surrounded  by  induced 
fields,  demonstrable  by  the  polarisation  of  the  conductors 
C  and  D.  The  smaller  figures  E  and  F  denote  Ponderable 
Molecules;  the  inner  circles  denote  the  molecular  masses; 
the  plus  and  minus  signs  on  which  denote  the  quality  of 
the  molecular  potentials.  The  molecular  masses  are  sur- 
rounded by  Fields  of  Induction  in  which  ether  or  other 
matter  is  polarized  as  in  electric  fields.  The  chemic  union 
of  E  and  F  neutralizes  the  molecular  potentials  thus  set- 
ting free  ether  from  the  fields  of  induction.  The  ether 
is  evolved  as  heat  or  light  if  it  maintains  its  molecular 
character,  or  as  electricity  if  it  is  split  up  into  atoms. 

It  is  obvious  that  ponderable  matter  may  be  formed 
of  molecules  of  incalculable  variety  depending  upon  the 
relative  numerical  proportions,  absolute  numbers  and  rela- 
tive placement  of  the  fundamental  units  in  the  molecular 
construction.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  obvious  that  ether 
molecules  never  vary  in  their  construction,  although 
numerically  they  must  be  measured  by  the  capacity  and 
immensity  of  interstellar  space. 


TRANSMUTATION  OF  FORCE.  11 

TRANSMUTATION  OF  FORCE.  In  previous  pub- 
lications the  author  has  expressed  in  the  following  formula 
the  modus  of  the  transmutation  of  force  and  its  radiation : 
"That  the  transformation  from  chemic  force  to  electricity, 
heat,  or  light,  is  accomplished  through  the  setting  free  of 
ether  from  the  induced  fields  of  ponderable  molecules,  con- 
current with  the  reciprocal  rearrangement  and  further 
immolecular  neutralization  of  their  atoms;  that  the  trans- 
formation from  electricity  to  heat  and  light  is  by  atomic 
ether  becoming  molecular;  that  heat  and  light  are  a  dis- 
turbance of  the  equilibrium  between  ether  and  other  mat- 
ter, caused  by  freed  or  nascent  molecular  ether,  and  mani- 
fested as  waves  of  readjustment."  In  illustration:  Sup- 
pose that  E  (Fig.  2)  represents  two  molecules  of  sodium 
with  induced  fields  in  which  128  molecules  of  ether  are 
polarized ;  and  that  F  represents  two  molecules  of  chlorine 
in  the  induced  fields  of  which  there  are  also  128  molecules 
of  ether.  Thus  256  molecules  of  ether  are  compressed 
within  the  interspaces  of  four  ponderable  molecules.  By  a 
chemical  reaction  four  molecules  of  sodium  chloride  are 
formed,  but  with  decreased  molecular  potentials,  decreased 
induction  in  the  molecular  fields,  diminished  interspaces; 
and  hence  some  part  of  the  ether  is  set  free.  We  will  say 
that  the  four  molecules  of  sodium  chloride  have  within 
their  fields  156  molecules  of  ether,  then  by  the  synthetic 
reaction  100  molecules  of  ether  are  liberated.  If  the  freed 
molecules  of  ether  maintain  their  molecular  state,  they  will 
disturb  the  general  equilibrium  and  manifest  as  heat  or 
light;  if  the  freed  ether  molecules  are  brought  under  the 
influence  of  differential  potentials  or  polarities  they  will  be 
split  up,  and  their  atoms  will  assume  the  electric  state  of 
matter  (Fig.  4). 

A  hypothesis,  to  be  elementary,  must  be  upheld  by  all 
facts,  however  far  removed  by  evolutionary  processes.  An 


12  HYPOTHESIS. 

unexplained  fact,  though  remote,  impairs  the  value  of  a 
hypothesis,  and  a  contradictory  fact  is  destructive  to  its 
fundamentalitiy.  These  postulates  have  been  kept  in  mind 
by  the  writer  in  applying  the  previous  theory  to  the  prob- 
lems of  astronomy;  and  he  writes  this  article  for  the  pur- 
pose of  calling  the  stars  as  witnesses  to  the  correctness  of 
his  conceptions.  He  believes  that  these  conceptiors  fur- 
nish a  basis  from  which  to  attack  the  problems  of  the 
universe;  and  he  expects  to  present  astronomical  evidence 
that  the  density  and  tenuity  of  matter,  and  its  differential 
distribution  throughout  space,  are  based  on  the  inherent 
properties  of  fundamental  units — concentrativeness  on  the 
part  of  positives  and  diffusibility  on  the  part  of  negatives. 
(Fig.  13). 


FIG.   2A.     Indicating  the  Ultimate   of  Ponderable  Tenuity — the 
Cathode  or  Beta  Particle  When  Not  Electrified. 


THE  SOLO-PLANETAKY  SPACE. 

By  this  term  we  designate  the  domain  of  the  sun  and  his 
tributary  planets.  We  may  regard  this  space  as  being  occu- 
pied by  a  great  wheel,  the  sun  constituting  its  hub  and  the 
planets  being  placed  along  the  spokes  at  different  distances 
from  the  center.  One  of  the  important  differences  between 
the  solo-planetary  wheel  and  a  common  one  is,  that  if  we 
allot  a  spoke  to  each  planet,  we  find  that  each  spoke  has  a 
different  length  and  a  different  rate  of  revolution  from  the 
others.  The  spoke  on  which  the  earth  is  located,  when 
produced,  is  called  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  The  plane  of 
each  spoke  has  a  slight  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic,  just  sufficient,  as  it  were,  to  allow  the  spokes  to 
pass  each  other  in  their  revolutions.  The  rim  of  the  wheel 
may  be  conceived  as  marking  the  boundary  of  the  solo- 
planetary  space  in  its  equatorial  extension.  This  space, 
however,  may  be  considered  as  globular  or  elliptical  in 
shape.  We  believe  that  we  can  show  that  the  necessities  of 
the  solar  system  demand  that  the  polar  diameter  of  the 
space  allotted  to  the  system  be  about  equal  to  its  equatorial 
diameter;  and  that  the  space  is  occupied  by  two  great 
streams  of  energy,  the  one  imparting  to  the  system  the 
property  of  equatorial  extension,  the  other  the  property  of 
polar  extension  (Fig.  7).  Clearly,  such  energies  must  be 
causal  factors  of  a  cosmic  pressure. 

On  looking  at  the  solar  system  as  arranged  on  an  astro- 
nomical map,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  poles  of  the  bodies  are, 
in  general,  uniformly  directed.  Hence  the  solo-planetary 
space  may  be  considered  as  having  a  north  and  south.  But 
polarity  has  a  different  meaning  than  mere  direction.  It  is 
conclusive  from  a  study  of  the  behavior  of  the  compass 


14  EARTH  AN  ELECTROLYTE. 

needle,  and  other  phenomena,  that  the  north  and  south 
poles  of  the  earth  are  the  seats  of  qualitatively  differential 
potentials.  Physicists  have  assumed  that  the  earth  is  a 
magnet. 

THE  EAETH  AN  ELECTKOLYTE,  NOT  A  MAG- 
NET. It  is  only  necessary  to  critically  examine  the  prop- 
erties of  a  magnet  to  doubt  the  correctness  of  the  assump- 
tion that  the  earth  is  a  magne.t.  If  a  magnet  is  broken 
into  pieces  each  piece  retains  the  magnetic  properties.  If 
a  chip,  however  small,  is  taken  from  it,  the  chip  is  a  com- 
plete magnet.  No  such  conditions  obtain  as  regards  the 
earth.  It  is  true  that  there  is  the  natural  magnet,  but 
quantitatively  the  polar  differential  properties  of  the  earth 
cannot  be  ascribed  to  it.  When  a  substance,  subject  to 
electrolytic  action,  is  placed  between  the  poles  of  a  battery, 
the  substance  as  a  whole  becomes  polarized — the  more 
negative  part  of  the  electrolyte  is  attracted  towards  the 
positive  electrode  and  the  more  positive  part  is  attracted 
toward  the  negative  electrode.  This  polarization  applies 
to  gases,  fluids  and  semi-fluids.  That  solids  under  these 
conditions  do  not  manifest  polarization  is  owing  to  the 
fact  of  the  molecules  being  more  firmly  fixed,  and  not  ow- 
ing to  any  principle  in  the  one  that  does  not  pertain  to  the 
other.  It  is  consistent  with  facts  to  suppose  the  poles  of 
the  earth  to  be  those  of  an  electrolyte  rather  than  those  of 
a  magnet — that  the  differential  potentials  are  analogous  to 
the  potentials  of  the  plates  of  a  battery,  or  rather  to  the 
poles  of  a  substance  undergoing  electrolytic  action. 

When  the  solid  part  of  the  earth  is  viewed  as  an  electro- 
positive body,  the  fact  of  there  being  more  land  in  the 
northern  than  in  the  southern  hemisphere  must  be  regarded 
as  evidence  of  a  relatively  positive  north  to  a  relatively 
negative  south.  However,  all  solids  are  not  positive  in 
quality.  A  fair  proportion  of  the  sulphates,  chlorates, 


SOLO-PLANETARY  SPACE.  15 

chlorides,  iodides  and  other  compounds  having  the  negative 
principle  well  represented  must  be  electro-negative.  An 
accumulation  of  negative  solids  at  the  south  pole  will  ren- 

ooooooo  oj^J^o  oooooooooooo 

FIG.  3.  An  Electrolyte:  The  dark  figures  denote  positive  and 
the  light  figures  negative  elements.  In  exemplification:  If 
the  electrolyte  be  steam,  and  separated  at  its  center,  an 
excess  of  oxygen  will  be  found  at  one  pole,  and  an  excess 
of  hydrogen  at  the  other. 

der  it  potentially  negative,  not  only  relatively  but  specifi- 
cally. Figure  3  indicates  an  electrolyte,  say  of  steam, 
which  is  positive  in  potential  as  the  earth  is  positive,  with 
electrolytic  differentiated  poles. 

Investigation  of  the  causes  of  molecular  and  mass 
polarization  makes  it  obvious  that  a  mass  or  a  molecule  will 
not  polarize  by  its  own  forces.  A  magnet  of  soft  iron  im- 
mediately depolarizes  when  the  extrinsic  force  is  withdrawn. 
A  so-called  permanent  magnet  inclines  towards  depolariza- 
tion. An  electrolyte  only  polarizes  under  the  influence  of 
two  different  forces.  A  muscle  depolarizes  on  withdrawal 
of  the  stimulus ;  and  nerves  and  all  other  physiologic  units 
do  likewise.  Hence  it  is  conclusive  that  external  forces 
are  engaged  in  the  polarization  of  the  earth.  Also,  it  is  ob- 
vious that  if  we  find  that  all  of  the  north  poles  of  bodies 
within  the  solo-planetary  space  are  positive  in  character,  we 
may  conclude  that  this  space  has  not  only  north  and  south 
poles,  but  that  these  are  positive  and  negative  respectively, 
when  polarizable  matter  is  present,  and  that  a  force  ex- 
ternal to  the  solar  system  at  least  gives  direction  to  this 
polarization. 

Deductively,  we  must  conclude  that  the  common  direc- 
tion of  polarities  of  the  solo-planetary  bodies  is  indicative 
of  influence  between  planetary  systems ;  and  that  the  polar 


16  EARTH  AN  ELECTROLYTE. 

direction  points  to  a  general  direction  in  the  polarities  of 
the  universe,  and  that  planetary  systems  are  inter- 
dependent. Nevertheless,  the  direction  of  the  poles  of  the 
system,  although  caused  by  universal  polarity,  must  be 
entirely  consistent  with,  and  supported  by  the  forces  within 
the  solo-planetary  space.  In  fact,  we  believe  it  can  be 
shown  that  the  intrinsic  forces  of  the  solar  system  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  maintenance  and  even  initiation  of  the  polari- 
ties of  the  system,  it  being  only  the  common  polar  direction 
that  denotes  extrinsic  influence. 


A  CYCLE  OF  ENERGY. 

It  is  agreed  that  energy  as  heat  and  light  emanates  from 
the  sun  and  is  absorbed  by  the  earth.  We  will  take  up  the 
course  of  energy  at  the  point  of  its  passing  from  the  sun 
to  the  earth  and  attempt  to  follow  the  cyclic  movement.  In 
the  first  place:  What  is  energy ?  We  may  say  that  it  is  a 
condition  of  matter  not  in  equilibrium.  We  must  then 
define  equilibrium,  and  this  we  determine  as:  A  balance 
of  matter  and  force  depending  on  the  relationship  of  all 
matter  and  all  force  to  all  space.  Thus,  a  molecule  of 
oxygen  in  the  air  is  in  equilibrium,  but  when  placed  in  a 
partial  vacuum,  it  is  entirely  out  of  equilibrium,  and  imme- 
diately splits  up  until  an  equilibrated  condition  is  attained. 
Here  we  must  postulate  that  although  ether  is  not  energy 
all  transformations  of  energy  produce  ether  changes,  and 
that  transformative  processes  consist  of  reciprocal  phe- 
nomena. Thus  an  ether  molecule  (Figs.  1,  2)  set  free  by 
electric  or  chemic  action  on  the  sun's  surface,  disturbs  the 
equilibrated  relation  of  matter  and  force  to  space,  radiates 
by  displacement  as  a  light  or  heat  vibration,  and  is  mani- 
fested by  an  equivalent  but  converse  reaction,  say,  on  the 
earth's  surface.  Then  this  energy  that  we  have  to  consider 
as  passing  from  the  sun  to  the  earth  is  molecular  ether  ra- 
diating by  displacement  or  undulatory  motion.  If  all  space 
were  not  occupied  by  matter  such  radiation  by  displacement 
could  not  occur. 

THE  EARTH  ABSORBS  ENERGY  AT  THE  EQUA- 
TOR AND  EMITS  IT  AT  THE  POLES.  Our  globe  is 
an  inverted  electrolyte.  The  sun's  rays  are  incident  to  the 
earth's  surface.  We  will  not  discuss  here  the  side  processes 
of  storing  energy  as  vegetable  matter,  but  will  consider  only 
the  more  direct  course  of  the  cycle.  We  have  elsewhere 


18  THERMO  ELECTRIC  CELL. 

formulated  the  following  law :  "When  molecular  ether  not 
in  equilibrium,  as  in  heat  or  light,  is  brought  under  the 
influence  of  differential  potentials,  it  splits  into  atoms, 
forming  electric  currents  or  charges."  Heat  or  light  radia- 
tions incident  to  the  surface  of  the  earth  come  under  the 
differential  potentials  of  the  earth  as  a  polarized  body,  and, 
molecular  ether  being  dissociated,  electric  currents  pass 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  the  north  or  posi- 
tive pole  is  negatively  electrically  charged,  and  the  south 
or  negative  pole  is  positively  electrically  charged.  The 
difference  of  electric  potential  however  can  never  be 
sufficient  to  neutralize  the  primary  difference  of 
potential  between  the  poles,  and  they  must  still  main- 
tain their  differential  character  of  the  north  being 
positive  and  the  south  being  negative,  the  polar  potentials 
of  the  earth  as  an  electrolyte  being  always  greater  than  the 
polar  electric  charges.  That  there  are  terrestrial  electric 
currents  admits  of  easy  demonstration,  but  how  they  are 
generated,  or  where  they  go,  have  not  been  heretofore  satis- 
factorily explained.  As  the  earth  is  within  the  inductive 
field  of  the  sun,  there  must  be  two  causal  factors  in  the 
production  of  terrestrial  currents:  (1)  Inductive  influ- 
ence of  solar  forces;  and  (2)  direct  influence  of  the  poles 
of  the  earth. 

THE  THERMO-ELECTRIC  CELL  presents  an  anal- 
ogy to  the  equator  of  the  earth  in  its  relation  to  incident 
energy.  In  Figure  4  two  metals  are  joined  as  indicated, 
the  dark  part  being  bismuth  and  the  light  part  antimony. 
The  junction  A  is  heated  and  the  junction  B  is  kept  cool. 
The  ether  as  heat  applied  to  junction  A  is  split  up  by  the 
difference  of  potentials  between  the  metals,  negative  ether 
passes  to  the  relatively  positive  bismuth,  and  positive  ether 
to  the  relatively  negative  antimony,  and  are  shown  as  elec- 
tric currents  passing  through  the  metals.  Now  let  the  June- 


CYCLE  OF  ENERGY. 


19 


tion  A  represent  the  equator  of  the  earth  and  the  applied 
heat  the  sun's  rays,  and  the  analogy,  so  far,  of  the  earth 
and  the  thermo-electric  cell  is  complete.  Numerous  photo- 


FIG.  4.     Thermo-Electric  Cell. 

electric  experiments  might  be  quoted  to  show  that  light  is 
transformed  into  electric  charges  when  radiating  under  the 
influence  of  differential  potentials.  In  the  neighborhood 
of  arc  lights,  of  heated  surfaces,  or  of  glowing  metals,  such 
electrifications  are  manifested.  Thus  the  transformation 
of  light  and  heat  radiations  into  electric  currents  by  the 
polarity  of  the  earth  can  be  shown  to  have  a  multitude  of 
analogies.  The  disposal  of  the  electric  polar  charges  will 
be  further  considered. 

ELECTRIC  DISCHARGE  IN  VACUO.  Energy  fol- 
lows the  course  of  least  resistance.  When  electrodes  having 
intense  difference  of  potential  are  placed  in  a  partial 


20 


ELECTRIC  DISCHARGE  IN  VACUO. 


vacuum  tube  with  only  slight  decrement  of  pressure,  the 
tube  may  not  be  electrified,  that  is,  the  electric  resistance 
may  be  too  great  for  the  current  to  pass  through  the  tube. 
By  decreasing  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  it  begins  to  glow  — 
the  particles  of  the  gas  are  electrified  and  radiate  within 
the  tube.  The  electric  resistance  decreases,  therefore, 


FIG.    5.     Indicating    Electric    Discharge    in    Vacuo-cathode    and 
X  Rays. 

in  direct  proportion  to  the  decrease  of  pressure  of  the  gas. 
There  is  a  critical  point,  however,  in  the  decrease  of  the 
resistance  of  the  electric  flow,  and  when  the  minimum  is 
reached  increase  of  resistance  occurs.  But  mark  this: 
The  critical  period  is  not  determined  by  a  change  in  the 
conditions  that  lessen  resistance  to  the  current,  but  by  a 


CYCLE  OF  ENERGY. 


21 


change  in  the  number  of  electric  chips  which  carry  the 
convection-current.  In  other  words  if  we  could  produce 
a  complete  vacuum  and  still  be  able  to  supply  electric 
carriers  the  decrease  of  electric  resistance  would  progress 
up  to  the  vacuum  point.  Here  we  may  say  that  a  vacuum 
is  a  space  from  which  ponderable  matter  is  excluded,  and 
occupied  with  no  other  substance  except  ether.  Ether 
then  offers  no  (or  a  minimum)  resistance  to  the  passage 
of  ponderable  matter. 

AURORA  POLARIS.  The  aurora  occurs  at  both 
polar  regions  of  the  earth.  According  to  Nordenskiold 
the  poles  of  the  earth  are  continuously  surrounded  by  a 


FIG.  6.     Aurora  Polaris.     Manifestations  of  energy  from  a  pole 
of  the  earth  on  its  way  to  a  pole  of  the  sun. 

ring  or  crown  of  light,  the  upper  edge  of  which  he  esti- 
mated to  be  120  miles  above  the  earth's  surface,  and  its 
diameter  to  be  about  1250  miles.  Other  estimations  have 
been  made  to  the  effect  that  aurorae  extend  500  or  600 


22  POLAR  CHARGES. 

miles  above  the  earth's  surface.  During  "magnetic 
storms/'  and  more  especially  during  the  occurrence  of 
spots  on  the  sun,  auroral  phenomena  are  so  intensely  mani- 
fested as  to  be  observed  all  over  the  earth;  and  these  in- 
tensities seem  to  have  a  period  of  Iiy2  years,  which  cor- 
responds to  the  length  of  the  cycle  of  maximum  magnetic 
storms  and  of  sun-spots.  Spectroscopic  examinations  of 
aurorae  show  the  presence  of  gaseous  matter,  the  exact 
character  of  which  is  not  known.  The  spectra,  however, 
consist  of  a  few  bright  lines  having  a  general  resemblance 
to  those  of  the  electric  discharge  through  rarified  dry  air. 

Relative  to  auroral  phenomena  a  remarkable  fact  may 
be  noted:  The  position  of  the  electric  (so-called  mag- 
netic) pole  of  the  earth,  as  determined  by  the  vertical 
dip  of  the  magnetic  needle,  was  located  by  Sir  James 
Ross  (1831)  at  70°  5'  north.  The  same  navigator  nearly 
attained  the  corresponding  southern  pole.  (1839-43)  and 
its  position  is  probably  about  73^°  south.  The  earth  is 
supposed  to  have  two  magnetic  north  and  two  magnetic 
south  poles.  The  notable  fact  is  that  the  polar  area  em- 
braced by  the  south  circle  of  latitude  of  vertical  dip  is 
much  more  contracted  than  that  embraced  by  the  north 
latitudinal  circle.  In  Fig.  7  these  polar  areas  are  indi- 
cated as  positive  and  negative  electrodes. 

TERRESTRIAL  POLAR  CHARGES.  In  the  cycle, 
we  have  traced  energy  to  the  poles  of  the  earth  which  as 
stated  are  differentially  electrified.  As  the  sun's  rays 
continue  to  act  on  the  equatorial  regions,  and  ether  con- 
tinues to  be  dissociated,  the  electric  pressure  at  the 
poles  increases,  rupture  of  the  medium  must  take  place, 
and  neutralization  must  occur  in  the  direction  of  least  re- 
sistance. The  electric  energy  may  follow  one  of  two 
paths,  and  these  we  will  consider  in  reference  to  their 
respective  resistances:  (1)  The  north  and  south  polar 


CYCLE  OF  ENERGY.  23 

charges  may  select  the  nearest  available  terrestrial  route 
towards  each  other  and  thus  mutually  neutralize.  (2) 
The  north  and  south  polar  electric  charges  may  be  at- 
tracted respectively  towards  the  poles  of  the  sun  and 
neutralize  within  that  body. 

Now  here  is  electric  energy,,  as  manifested  in  aurorae 
polares,  that  has  been  estimated  by  observers  as  120 
to  600  miles  from  the  earth's  surface,  and  evidently  with 
no  disposition  to  point  toward  the  equator.  The  ques- 
tion is:  From  this  point  which  is  the  direction  of  least 
resistance?  If  we  consider  that  the  space  of  92,000,000 
miles  between  the  sun  and  the  earth  is  occupied  by  ether, 
and  that  the  space  of  about  8000  miles  between  the  points 
of  north  and  south  aurorae  as  designated  is  occupied  by 
the  earth's  atmosphere,  we  will  at  once  see  that  distance 
is  not  the  only  factor  of  resistance.  But  more  important 
than  distance  as  an  element  in  determining  the  course 
of  this  energy  is  the  fact  that  the  intervening  terrestrial 
space  is  occupied  by  another  stream  of  energy,  as  heat 
and  light,  from  the  sun,  which  would  resist  its  crossing. 
The  writer  has  to  express  a  positive  opinion  that  only 
when  great  magnetic  storms  occur  and  the  area  of  emis- 
sion of  electric  energy  extends  a  great  distance  from  the 
poles,  and  towards  the  equator,  could  neutralization  of 
the  electric  charges  take  place  by  an  intra-terrestrial  route, 
either  through  or  near  the  earth's  atmosphere.  When  the 
slight  resistance  offered  by  partial  vacua  is  considered, 
the  conclusion  is  inevitable  that  convection  currents  start- 
ing from  polar  regions  must  travel  through  inter-planetary 
space  to  the  poles  of  the  sun.  It  must  be  admitted  that 
distance  is  only  an  element  of  resistance  to  the  travel  of 
energy  when  ponderable  matter  is  involved  as  a  resisting 
agent.  The  electric  currents  of  the  earth  are  directed  by  its 
polar  potentials,  and  are  taken  from  the  terrestrial  poles 


CYCLE  OF  ENERGY. 


FIG.  7 


POLAR  CHARGES.  25 

by  the  stronger  forces  of  the  sun,  just  as  oxygen  is  taken 
from  hydrogen  by  a  stronger  chemic  element,  and  just  as  a 
negative  charge  leaves  a  zinc  plate  to  be  neutralized  within 
the  circuit. 

What  is  the  form  of  the  polar  electric  radiations?  Un- 
doubtedly ions  or  chips  dissociated  by  the  electric 
charges.  It  is  possible  that  they  may  be  identical  with 
rays  from  radio-active  matter — alpha  rays  from  the  south 
pole  and  beta  rays  from  the  north.  However,  there  are 
many  other  instances  of  convection-currents  carrying 
matter.  In  sparks  evidence  of  metallic  substances  are 
found.  Carbon  is  dissociated  from  the  positive  ter- 
minal of  an  arc-light  and  deposited  on  the  negative  ter- 
minal; and  chips  of  molecules  constitute  the  cathode  rays 
in  electrified  partial  vacua. 

FIG.  7.  Indicating  a  cycle  of  Energy  between  the  Sun  and 
Earth.  Convection  currents  from  the  planets  arrive  at  the 
poles  of  the  sun,  where  ions  are  deposited;  the  currents 
pass,  by  conduction,  through  the  central  core,  C  C;  and 
at  the  equator  are  transformed  into  heat  and  light.  A  A 
indicate  reversed  ionic  currents  in  the  photosphere. 
B  B  denote  ions  at  the  poles  which  ultimately  neutralize 
within  the  photosphere.  D  D  point  to  a  certain  decrement 
of  pressure  at  which  the  electrified  ions  will  dissociate  as 
they  leave  the  poles  of  the  earth.  Mark  the  different 
sizes  of  the  north  and  south  polar  areas  of  the  earth,  and 
compare  them  with  analogous  areas  as  shown  in  Figs. 
15  and  16.  The  figure  represents  a  galvanic  circuit  with 
the  earth  as  a  thermo-electric  cell. 

Fig.  7  indicates  energy  as  heat  or  light  striking  the 
earth,  passing  as  electric  currents  to  the  poles,  where 
convection-currents  are  found,  manifesting  as  aurorae.  The 
convection-currents  at  first  may  consist  of  electrified 
molecules  or  ions  of  the  common  type — hydrogen  nega- 
tively electrified  from  the  north  pole,  and  oxygen  posi- 
tively electrified  from  the  south.  As  these  charged  mole- 
cules or  ions  pass  upwards  they  will  become  further  dis- 
sociated, as  indicated  in  Fig.  7o,  and  as  occur  in  a 
partial  vacuum  tube.  At  the  north  the  hydrogen  may  be 


26  SOLAR  CHARGES. 

dissociated  into  a  minute  particle  as  in  beta  rays,  and 
this  being  negatively  charged  will  continue  its  way  to  the 
sun's  positive  pole.  The  residual  particle  of  hydrogen 
will  diffuse  through  the  earth's  atmosphere.  At  the  south 
pole  the  charged  oxygen  will  dissociate  at  proper  de- 
crement into  an  ion  the  size  of  an  alpha  particle  (helium), 
which  being  charged  positively  will  seek  the  south  (nega- 
tive) pole  of  the  sun.  The  residual  particle  of  the  dis- 
sociated oxygen  will  diffuse  through  the  atmosphere  and 
neutralize  the  residual  particle  of  hydrogen.  Radiant 
matter  from  the  poles  of  the  earth  may,  however,  con- 
sist of  various  elements  as  may  be  analogously  evidenced 
in  electric  sparks  from  electrodes  of  various  materials. 

THE  SUN  ABSORBS  ENERGY  AT  THE  POLES 
AND  EMITS  IT  AT  THE  EQUATOR.  The  sun  is 

not  a  self-luminous  body,  but  an  electric  light.  Elec- 
tric energy  emitted  at  the  poles  of  the  earth  and  other 
planetary  bodies  constitutes  an  immense  stream  of  radiant 
matter  which,  according  to  the  law  of  Ohm,  spreads  out 
in  the  direction  of  least  resistance,  fills  the  solo-planetary 
space  to  the  north  and  south  of  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic, 
or  rather  the  plane  of  the  solar  equator,  and  again  con- 
verging at  the  poles  of  the  sun  enters  that  body  with  a 
concentrated  force  of  inconceivable  immensity,  and  only 
comparable  to  the  equivalent  energy  of  heat  and  light 
emitted  at  the  solar  equator.  Thus  electric  currents 
of  immeasurable  intensity  pass  from  the  solar  poles  toward 
its  equator,  and  neutralizing  in  the  equatorial  region  are 
transformed  into  energy  which  illuminates  and  vitalizes 
the  world.  (Fig.  7.) 

How  does  electricity  travel  through  the  central  body  of 
the  sun?  Undoubtedly  by  vibratory  movements,  as 
through  a  copper  wire  or  other  solid  conductor.  This  is 
no  doubt  the  method  by  which  electricity  travels  through 


CYCLE  OF  ENERGY.  27 

the  earth  from  its  equator  to  its  poles.  The  ions  with 
their  electric  charges  reach  the  poles  of  the  sun,  the  ions 
are  there  deposited,  and  electric  currents  proceed  toward 
the  equator  by  vibratory  movement.  The  spectroscope 
reveals  the  presence  of  metallic  elements  in  the  photo- 
sphere, carbon  being  the  only  non-metallic  element  for 
the  presence  of  which  there  is  any  evidence.  There  is 
no  evidence  of  electro-negative  metalloids,  such  as 
oxygen,  nitrogen,  or  other  non-conductors;  and  even  in 
the  chromosphere  hydrogen,  an  electro-positive  element, 
according  to  spectroscopic  evidence,  is  the  prevailing  con- 
stituent, although  there  is  also  evidence  of  helium  being 
present.  Thus  we  see,  under  solar  conditions,  evidence 
of  positive  concentrativeness,  and  also  evidence,  although 
of  negative  character,  of  negative  diffusibility.  Below 
the  photosphere,  and  perhaps  including  the  polar  photo- 
spheric  areas,  matter  must  be  more  dense.  The  photo- 
spheric  mass  of  electropositive  concentrativeness  must 
create  an  axial  core  of  extreme  density  and  of  metallic 
character.  That  matter  at  the  center  of  the  earth  is  of 
great  density  is  the  opinion  of  Lord  Kelvin,  arrived  at 
from  certain  experimental  evidences.  The  axial  metallic 
core  of  the  solar  body,  possessing  but  slight  electric  re- 
sistance, must  be  the  great  conducting  medium  of  elec- 
tric currents  passing  from  the  poles  to  the  equator. 
When  the  currents  neufralize  in  the  equatorial  regions 
great  quantities  of  molecular  ether  must  be  produced, 
and  these  must  seek  equilibrium  by  disturbing  surround- 
ing matter  (Fig.  7c.).  The  conducting  core,  how- 
ever, will  not  be  disturbed  any  more  than  a  copper  wire 
is  disturbed  by  the  passage  of  a  current.  It  is  the  heat 
and  not  the  electricity  which  is  the  disturbing  element. 
Molecular  ether  as  heat  will  penetrate  and  seek  equilibra- 
tion by  molecular  disturbance  in  the  photosphere,  pro- 


8 


SOLAR  CHARGES. 


ducing  the  grains  or  nodules  of  Herschel;  and  by  vola- 
tilization will  carry  some  of  its  elements  into  the  chromo- 
sphere. The  photosphere  then  is  a  boiling  surface,  and 
the  chromosphere  is  analogous  to  the  steam  arising  from 
it.  Further,  at  times,  owing  to  the  relative  positions  of 
planets  the  currents  in  the  axial  core  become  more  in- 
tense; or  owing  to  an  excessive  accumulation  of  ions  at 
the  poles  ionic  floods  occur  which,  meeting  at  the  equator, 
produce  enormous  chemical  results;  great  masses  of 
ether  are  thus  set  free,  immense  ebullitions  perturb  the 
photosphere,  and  volcano-like,  great  cavities  are  seen  on 
its  surface.  These  cavities  or  sun-spots,  as  seen  from 
the  earth,  present  a  dark  central  portion  of  irregular 
form  called  the  umbra,  surrounded  by  a  fringe,  less  dark 
and  mostly  made  up  of  filaments  directed  radially  in- 
wards. Fig.  8  shows  a  typical  sun-spot.  The  largest 
spot,  observations  of  which  are  recorded,  had  a  breadth 
of  143,000  miles,  or  nearly  eighteen  times  the  diameter 
of  the  earth. 


FIG.   8.     A  Sun  Spot. 


CYCLE  OF  ENERGY.  29 


FIG.  9.     A  Miniature  Sun  Spot  surrounding  a  heated  glass  rod. 

To  understand  the  results  ensuing  from  the  liberation 
of  large  masses  of  molecular  ether,  we  must  remember 
that  ether,  being  matter,  must  possess  impenetrability; 
and  that  owing  to  the  property  of  cohesion  it  takes  time 
for  ponderable  matter  to  mix  and  equilibrate  with  the 
ether.  An  experiment  made  by  Frederick  Hovenden 
illustrates  this  idea.  Fig.  9  shows  a  cross  section  of  a 
glass  rod  heated,  and  viewed,  by  means  of  an  electric 
light  lantern,  through  an  atmosphere  of  motes  created 
by  means  of  tobacco  smoke.  The  ether  given  off  by  the 
heated  glass  creates  a  dark  ring  surrounding  the  rod,  and 
as  it  ascends  it  parts  the  mote-laden  air.  Ether  set  free 
beyond  the  capacity  of  ponderable  molecules  to  work  it 
up  into  light  vibrations  presents  darkness,  or  heat  move- 
ments; and  this  is  what  occurs  in  sun-spots,  and  round 
the  heated  rod. 

Molecular  ether  freed  by  electric  neutralization  per- 
turbs the  immediate  elements  situated  in  the  photosphere, 
and,  radiating  as  from  an  electric  lamp,  furnishes  light 
and  energy  to  the  tributary  planets.  This  energy, 
emanating  from  the  solar  equatorial  region,  radiates  along 


30  SOLAR  CHARGES. 

the  solar  equatorial  plane  (approximately  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic),  and  is  returned  to  the  sun  as  electric 
energy.  The  sun  gathers  electric  energy  and  converts 
it  into  heat  and  light;  the  planets  take  up  the  heat  and 
light  and  convert  their  energy  into  electricity.  The  sun 
is  an  electrolyte,  the  earth  is  an  inverted  electrolyte;  the 
sun  absorbs  energy  at  its  poles,  and  emits  energy  at  its 
equator;  the  earth  absorbs  energy  at  its  equator  and  emits 
it  at  its  poles.  The  equatorial  plane  of  the  solo-planetary 
space  is  filled  with  a  stream  of  energy  of  heat  and  light 
emanating  from  its  solar  center;  the  polar  regions  of 
the  space  are  filled  with  electrified  ions  emanating  from 
the  poles  of  the  planets,  radiating  sunward,  and  con- 
centrating at  the  solar  poles;  and  so  the  cycle  is  complete. 
But,  mark,  with  the  absorption  of  energy  the  sun  gains 
ponderable  matter,  and  this  fact  is  indicative  of  a  greater 
cycle. 


A  GREATER  CYCLE. 

The  sun  is  a  dilating  body.  The  continuous  accession 
of  charged  molecules  to  the  poles  of  the  solar  mass,  car- 
ried by  convection-currents  from  the  poles  of  the  .planets, 
gradually,  although  slowly,  increases  its  dimensions. 
Probably  it  has  already  engulfed  one  or  two  planets  by 
extending  its  equatorial  circumference.  Mercury  already 
anticipates  its  coming  doom  and  is  preparing  for  its  final 
absorption. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  matter  in  the  sun  has  only 
one-fourth  the  density  of  the  earth,  and  that  the  density 
of  Mercury  is  seven-eighths  that  of  our  globe.  Other 
planets  vary  in  density.  Hence  matter  lost  by  the  planets 
and  gained  by  the  sun  will  increase  the  sun's  mass  much 
more  than  it  will  decrease  the  masses  of  the  planets. 
Again,  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  sun's  circumference  to 
reach  Mercury  in  order  to  absorb  it,  as,  long  before  that 
period  arrives,  the  solar  heat  will  have  dissolved  the 
planet.  The  intense  radiations  of  molecular  ether  from 
the  sun  falling  on  the  surface  of  Mercury  are  partly  trans- 
formed into  electric  currents  which  carry  particles  from 
its  poles  to  the  sun.  Mercury  is  being  thermically  and 
electrolytically  dissolved,  and  truly  the  duration  of  its 
life  as  a  planet  is  short. 

Astronomers  state  that  the  sun  is  a  small  body  in  com- 
parison to  some  of  the  fixed  stars,  which  are  great  sun- 
centers  of  solo-planetary  spaces.  It  is  estimated  that 
Algol  has  a  diameter  of  1,060,000  miles.  It  is  probable 
that  there  are  some  suns  of  such  dimensions  that  if  one 
were  placed  in  the  center  of  the  solo-planetary  system  it 
would  dissolve  Venus,  and  render  conditions  rather  un- 
pleasant for  us.  Yet,  the  solo-planetary  spaces  of  such 
central  bodies  may  not  be  any  larger  than  ours;  and  the 


32  PLANETARY  REBELLION. 

only  reason  for  suns  being  so  large  is  that  they  are  at 
a  different  period  of  a  cyclic  movement,  which  is  per- 
petually modifying  the  conditions  within  the  solo- 
planetary  spaces.  Our  sun  is  growing.  Mercury  and 
Venus  will  be  melted  and  absorbed.  The  solar  circum- 
ferential area  will  embrace  the  orbit  of  Venus.  Its 
diameter  will  then  be  69,000,000  miles.  Our  earth  may 
then  be  about  the  size  of  Mercury  at  the  present  time,  and 
we  may  have  lost  our  atmosphere.  We  may  even  have 
been  robbed  of  our  moon,  which  may  be  dragged  on* 
bodily  at  a  tangent  to  its  orbit.  Our  "Last  Man"  will 
have  sung  the  last  dirge  long  before  the  close  of  this 
cyclic  phase.  The  life  of  our  planet  is  escaping  at  its 
poles,  shortly  it  will  be  absorbed  into  the  constitution  of 
the  great  Sun,  and  its  constituents  will  part  company, 
never  more  to  combine  as  an  individual  planet.  Our 
people,  their  experiences,  their  histories,  their  attach- 
ments, the  results  of  their  efforts  to  immortalize,  will 
pass.  The  events  of  our  planet  may  not  even  live  in 
memory.  But  a  planet  will  then  have  passed  through 
one  cycle,  and  surely  a  condition  will  be  attained  by  evo- 
lution, which,  in  some  form,  must  be  capital  to  start  the 
next. 

A  PLANETARY  REBELLION.  At  this  stage  we 
have  to  retrovert  somewhat  in  our  story:  Once  upon  a 
time  there  was  a  great  rebellion  iri  the  solo-planetary  space 
against  the  dominion  of  the  Sun.  It  was  headed  by 
Jupiter,  supported  by  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune,  and 
occurred  during  the  formative  stage  of  planets.  It  came 
about  in  this  wise:  The  Sun  was  then  a  comparatively 
small  body,  and  his  chief  advantage  was  the  central  posi- 
tion. He  was  receiving  electric  energy  at  the  poles,  and 
emitting  heat  and  light  at  the  equator,  and  the  planets 
were  revolving  round  him  as  their  common  center. 


GREATER  CYCLE.  33 

Jupiter  conceived  the  idea  of  intercepting  the  electric 
radiations  of  Saturn,  Uranus  and  Neptune,  and  thus  be- 
coming a  sun  himself.  Certain  periods  in  the  revolution 
of  the  outer  planets  favored  the  scheme,  and  the  outer 
planets  poured  their  electric  energy  into  Jupiter's  poles. 
Jupiter  increased  in  strength  beyond  all  the  other  planets, 
and  this  fact  made  him  ambitious  to  extend  his  sphere 
over  the  asteroids.  Thus,  the  path  of  the  asteroids  being 
middle  ground  between  the  Sun  and  Jupiter,  they  were 
prevented  from  concentrating  as  one  planet,  and  thus 
formed  several.  Further,  being  near  to  Jupiter,  dur- 
ing the  epoch  of  his  greatness,  they  lost  considerable 
matter  as  electrically  charged  ions  radiating  outward  to 
Jupiter's  poles.  Mars  also  was  stinted  in  his  growth  by 
the  action  of  Jupiter.  By  and  by  the  Sun,  through  his 
central  advantage,  becoming  more  massive,  drove  Jupiter 
from  the  asteroids,  and,  attacking  the  planet  directly, 
broke  his  rebellious  spirit  by  bombarding  his  surface  with 
heat  and  light  radiations,  and  seizing  his  supplies  from 
the  outer  planets.  The  Sun  thus  established  his  suprem- 
acy over  the  solo-planetary  space.  Jupiter  even  now,  at 
times,  shows  a  refractory  spirit,  as  mark  his  great  "red 
spot"  from  about  1880  to  1885,  which,  sun-like,  was 
probably  formed  by  the  absorption  of  electric  energy  de- 
rived from  Saturn  or  Uranus,  and  transformed  into  heat 
at  the  planet's  equator.  A  study  of  the  position  of  the 
planets,  and  of  Fig.  7,  will  show  that  the  relative  posi- 
tion of  Jupiter  is  favorable  to  the  interception  of  this 
energy. 

THE  CYCLE  CONTINUED.  Eeturning  to  the 
cyclic  movement  we  find  the  sun's  circumference  becoming 
equal  to  the  orbit  of  our  late  earth.  Great  tongues  of 
matter  and  flame  project  millions  of  miles  further.  In 
this  connection  it  must  be  understood  that  the  density  of 


34  SPACIAL  BOUNDARIES. 

the  sun  is  comparatively  small,  and  that  each  planet  at 
the  sun's  surface  density  is  capable  of  occupying  a 
spacial  band  on  each  side  of  its  orbit  extending  half  way 
to  the  next  planet's  position.  Hence,  as  the  sun  grows 
in  mass  and  absorbs  other  planets,  and  in  addition  receives 
electrified  matter  from  those  remaining,  its  circumfer- 
ence must  be  well  over  the  orbit  of  the  last-absorbed 
planet.  The  solar  body  gets  progressively  less  dense,  as 
it  increases  its  dimensions,  according  to  the  disposition, 
of  positive  and  negative  matter  within  the  solo-planetary 
space.  (Fig.  10.) 

Jupiter  has  declined,  and  the  histories  of  his  civiliza- 
tions, of  his  giant  strifes,  and  still  more  giant  accom- 
plishments, have  been  written.  Saturn  long  since  has 
lost  his  rings  and  is  now  the  seat  of  great  "human"  ac- 
tivity, denoting  such  a  high  civilization  inconceivable  to 
a  mind  in  our  present  status.  Uranus  is  just  arriving  at 
those  conditions  of  density,  and  of  the  relative  con- 
sistencies in  the  states  of  its  matter,  essential  to  vital 
processes.  A  polar  view  of  the  conditions  of  this  period 
is  undoubtedly  shown  in  the  great  nebula  Lyra.  (Fig. 
21.) 

SPACIAL  BOUNDARIES.  Here  we  must  more  par- 
ticularly define  the  solo-planetary  space.  We  will  divide 
the  space  allotted  to  our  system  into:  (1)  The  True  or 
Primary  solo-planetary  space,  consisting  of  that  portion 
which  is  more  or  less  occupied  by  ponderable  matter;  and 
(2)  the  Secondary  or  Greater  solo-planetary  space,  a 
vast  area  surrounding  the  primary,  bearing  a  similar 
relation  to  it  as  a  field  of  induction  does  to  its  primary 
potential,  and  into  which  probably  no  ponderable  sub- 
stance ever  enters.  If  we  travel  to  a  point  many  millions 
of  miles  beyond  Neptune,  keeping  on  the  plane  of  the 


GREATER  CYCLE. 

sun's  equator,  and  passing  through  the  region  of  negative 
and  tenuous  ponderable  matter  (Fig.  10),  we  will  find 
the  sun's  rays,  as  manifesting  under  present  conditions, 
diminished,  but  the  rays  of  the  numerous  suns  beyond, 
in  the  aggregate  correspondingly  increased.  If  we  ad- 
just our  photimeter  we  will  find  that  at  some  such  point 
in  space  (perhaps  ten  millions  of  millions  of  miles  from 
ponderable  matter)  the  outgoing  and  incoming  radiations 
will  be  exactly  equal.  Here  we  may  plant  our  boundary 
post  as  marking  the  limits  of  the  greater  solo-planetary 
space.  Our  post  is  on  a  line  with  the  great  solo- 
planetary  wheel  which  turns  on  the  plane  of  the  sun's 
equator,  and  the  hub  of  which  is  the  sun's  mass;  but  we 
have  left  ponderable  matter  behind  and  we  are  in  the 
midst  of  interstellar  space.  On  looking  telescopically 
towards  the  wheel  we  are  struck  with  our  changing 
scenes.  We  see  Uranus,  now  appearing  as  the  largest  of 
the  planets,  taking  on  all  the  phases  of  the  moon,  but 
fading  in  the  distance  at  its  full  phase  to  the  merest 
point.  We  will  see  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  sun  by  Saturn, 
and  the  glorious  sight  will  be  enhanced  by  rays  of  light 
passing  between  Saturn's  ring  and  the  central  body.  Our 
earth  is  the  merest  speck  in  the  heavens.  We  are  in  the 
midst  of  the  celestial  desert,  where  even  the  mental  eye 
fails  to  distinguish  landmarks;  but  our  delicate  instru- 
ment detects  the  billows  in  the  ocean  of  ether  as  they 
pass  and  repass  the  gulf  separating  borderland  from 
borderland  of  solar  systems — infinitestimal  waves  of 
force  traveling  through  boundless  space.  The  intensity 
of  the  loneliness  terrorizes  the  soul,  and  the  zero  pres- 
sure threatens  its  integrity.  The  most  minute  particle 
of  ponderable  matter  would  appear  as  a  friend.  We  are 
surrounded  by  a  medium  that  transmits  vibrations  with- 
out modification,  and  without  resistance.  We  place  our 


36  SPACIAL  BOUNDARIES. 

vibrator  and  send  a  message  through  infinite  space,  which 
will  roll  through  the  aeons;  and  the  message  reads. 
ALONE  WITH  GOD. 

Let  us  further  define  our  boundary  lines.  Keeping  on 
the  line  as  already  defined  (where  radiant  energies 
equalize)  we  will  travel  towards  a  point  directly  opposite 
the  south  pole  of  the  sun  and  on  a  plane  of  the  sun's  axis. 
We  find  that  our  line  of  travel  describes  a  curve  indicat- 
ing that  we  are  bounding  a  space  of  globular  or  elliptical 
form.  From  a  view-point  on  a  plane  of  the  solar  axis, 
and  at  the  south  pole  of  the  greater  solo-planetary  space, 
we  place  our  telescope  so  that  we  can  examine  the  sun's 
pole.  Our  first  glance  gives  a  delightful  surprise,  and  we 
look  at  the  telescope  to  see  if  it  has  been  converted  into 
a  spinthariscope.  The  splendid  sight  presents  a  field  of 
scintillations  similar  to  that  of  a  platinum  surface  bom- 
barded by  alpha  rays.  On  consideration  we  see  at  once 
that  this  is  a  matter  of  fact  and  that  alpha  energy  from 
the  poles  of  the  planets  is  beating  against  the  south  pole 
of  the  sun,  and  is  partly  reflected  with  magnificent  bril- 
liancy. We  now  adjust  the  telescope,  at  low  power,  so 
as  to  have  a  general  polar  view  of  the  solar  system.  It 
manifests  as  one  glimmer  of  light,  more  intense  than,  but 
similar  in  character  to  the  glow  of  an  electrified  Crookes 
tube.  We  raise  the  telescopic  power  so  as  to  examine 
each  planet's  pole  separately,  and  we  view  the  glories  of 
aurorae  polares.  A  stream  of  energy  is  emanating  from 
each  pole,  spreading  out  fan-like,  and  again  concentrat- 
ing, enters  the  sun's  mass  at  its  pole.  Without  the 
telescope  this  light  has  a  faintish  yellow  tint  like  the 
light  of  an  electrified  vacuum.  We  conclude  that  all 
space  is  filled  with  energy,  and  that  radiant  glory  every- 
where prevails. 


GREATER  CYCLE.  37 

A  CEITICAL  POINT.  Again  we  return  to  the  greater 
cycle,  the  course  of  which  we  take  up  at  a  critical  point. 
The  sun  has  extended  his  boundaries  until  they  are  co- 
equal with  the  boundaries  of  the  solo-planetary  space. 
There  is  no  sun,  and  there  are  no  planets.  The  density 
is  almost  uniform,  only  a  relative  positive  condensation, 
showing  the  axis  of  the  space,  which  is  a  production  of 
the  former  sun's  axis;  and  a  relative  negative  diffusion 
towards  the  rim.  Matter  still  revolves  around  the  axis. 
The  matter  of  the  space  also  shows  some  polarity,  that  is, 
at  the  north  pole  of  the  space  there  are  more  positive 
ions  than  there  are  negative,  and  at  the  south  pole  of  the 
space  there  are  more  negative  ions  than  positive;  a  con- 
dition similar  to  that  of  an  electrolyte  (Fig.  3).  It 
would  be  chaotic  but  for  this  electrolytic  arrangement, 
and  for  the  relative  placement  of  positive  and  negative 
matter  throughout.  There  is  no  electric  manifestation, 
there  is  no  light,  and  there  is  no  heat.  Matter  is  in 
equilibrium  at  the  highest  point  of  general  diffusibility. 
In  this  respect  it  must  be  remembered  that  heat  and  light 
must  result  from  relative  motion.  Viewed  from  a  "fixed 
star,"  the  solo-planetary  space  presents  darkness. 

The  Nebular  Theories  of  Kant,  Laplace  and  Herschel, 
formulated  by  different  processes  of  reasoning,  assumed 
the  creation  of  gaseous  matter  in  rotary  motion,  with 
conditions  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  this  phase  of 
the  cycle.  They  reasoned  that  rings  of  matter  were  left 
behind  through  a  contraction-process,  and  that  the  outer 
planets  were  formed  first. 

A  KETKOACTION.  At  this  stage  of  the  cyclic  move- 
ment all  the  elements  and  conditions  for  chemic  action 
exist.  As  long  as  there  were  two  or  more  bodies  within 
the  solo-planetary  space  their  mutual  action  caused  in- 
ductively synthetic  reactions,  or  the  separation  of  positive 


38 


RETROACTION. 


and  negative  elements  with  larger  molecular  potentials 
and  increased  induced  fields,  which  ended  in  diffusing 
matter.  When  the  last  planet  was  absorbed  by  the  sun, 
and  the  sun  himself  by  this  action  lost  his  identity, 
chemic  action  changed  in  character.  Electric  action 
had  disappeared,  and  with  it  the  power  of  matter  to  dif- 
fuse. Positive  and  negative  elements  then  had  a  tendency 
to  come  together  and  to  assume  denser  conditions.  Mat- 
ter at  this  stage  had  only  one  form  of  potential,  which 
was  chemic  or  molecular  in  character.  Probably  all 
matter  was  ionic  in  character,  the  ions  being  separated  by 
large  intermolecular  spaces  filled  with  ether,  and  the 
ether  being  dominated  by  the  molecular  potentials  of  the 
ions. 

Let  us  draw  a  mental  picture  of  the  true  solo-planetary 
space  with  the  almost  uniform  density  of  its  matter  dur- 
ing this  period,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  10  from  B  to  E.  If 


FIG.  10.  A  semi-cross-section  of  the  true  Solo-Planetary 
Space,  showing  its  equatorial  plane,  P  E.  The  lighter 
portion,  above  N  R,  indicates  the  region  of  Nega- 
tives. The  darker  central  portion,  P  R,  indicates  the  region 
of  Positives.  As  matter  contracts  Ether  Spaces  are  formed 
from  the  Sun,  S,  outwards. 


GREATER  CYCLE.  39 

we  note  the  tendency  of  elements  to  react  on  each  other, 
thus  setting  free  molecular  ether,  as  heat,  we  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  seeing  that  at  different  intervals  within 
the  solo-planetary  space  large  bodies  of  ether  will  be 
segregated,  and  thus  the  contracting  ponderable  matter 
will  be  confined  to  limited  areas.  Fig.  10  shows  such 
ether  spaces  in  process  of  formation.  It  is  evident  that 
as  the  ponderable  masses  continue  to  contract  that  ether 
spaces  will  continue  to  grow.  Space  A  will  extend  across 
the  equator  through  BB  and  unite  with  space  Al.  A 
and  Al  will  extend  along  the  circumference  until  uniting 
respectively  with  C  and  Cl.  The  other  ether  spaces  will 
extend  also  until  they  are  all  united  into  one  great  inter- 
space. Then,  it  will  be  seen,  that  there  is  a  central  rod 
of  ponderable  matter,  S,  along  the  axis;  and  great 
bands,  probably  about  twelve  in  number,  encircling  the 
rod  at  different  distances.  Each  of  these  bands  has  for 
its  center  the  orbit  of  a  future  planet.  The  central  rod, 
S,  is  the  future  sun.  During  this  phase  of  the  retro- 
active period  there  have  been  three  modes  of  action  within 
the  solo-planetary  space:  (1)  A  circular  mass  movement 
of  the  rod  and  the  bands  on  an  axial  center — the  mo- 
mentum of  former  rotation.  (2)  Contraction  of  ponder- 
able masses  as  a  result  of  chemic  action.  (3)  Contraction 
from  gravitation.  However,  it  must  be  recognized  that 
contraction  takes  place  at  a  greater  rate  in  matter  placed 
towards  the  center  that  in  that  placed  towards  the  circum- 
ference of  the  space;  and  that  matter  is  less  dense  and 
more  negative  in  direct  proportion  to  the  distance  from 
the  axis  of  the  space.  The  conditions  of  this  period,  and 
of  that  which  follow,  may  be  observed  in  the  great  nebula 
of  Andromeda.  The  outer  ether  spaces  and  bands  of 
ponderable  matter  are  distinctly  shown,  but  the  inner 


40  BIRTH  OF  ELECTRICITY. 

spaces  are  too  small,  and  too  obliquely  presented  to  be 
observed.  (Fig.  11.)  The  three  active  forces  will  now, 
be  modified  by  an  event  of  importance. 


FIG.  11.  A  Polar  View  of  a  Solo-Planetary  System  during 
the  contracting  period.  The  nebula  of  Andomeda.  From 
Mr.  Roberts'  Photograph. 

THE  BIRTH  OF  ELECTRICITY.  Up  to  this  time 
matter  has  not,  to  any  great  extent,  been  physically  dif- 
ferentiated, but  now  along  the  centers  of  the  rod  and 
bands  small  nuclei  of  solid  matter  might  be  observed. 
Those  in  the  rod  quickly  develop  into  a  solid  core,  while 
those  in  the  more  central  bands  develop  more  quickly 
than  those  eccentrically  placed.  During  this  period  the 
radiations  from  the  surfaces  of  each  band  are  neutralized 
by  the  radiations  from  the  opposing  surfaces  of  adjoin- 
ing bands.  These  radiations  are  caused  by  the  contraction 
of  matter  as  a  result  of  chemic  action,  and  are  in  the 


GREATER  CYCLE.  41 

nature  of  heat  and  light  waves.  But  now  the  radiations 
from  the  rod  strike  the  solid  nuclei  of  the  first  band,  and 
these  becoming  polarized  dissociate  the  radiating  ether 
and  electricity  is  for  the  first  time  manifested.  From  the 
poles  of  the  nuclei  electrified  chips  fly  off,  which,  seeking 
the  poles  of  the  rod,  electrify  its  core,  and  the  first  elec- 
tric circuit  is  made. 

We  conclude  that  matter  within  the  solo-planetary  space 
is  in  some  degree  polarized  by  external  forces,  and  that 
polarization  is  universal  and  uniform.  Independently  of 
external  force  we  find  that  the  forces  within  the  space 
are  sufficient  for  the  production  of  all  relative  phenomena, 
but  for  this  uniform  direction.  Thus  a  solid  nucleus  of 
matter  when  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays  would  immediately 
polarize,  but  the  fact  of  the  direction  of  the  polarization 
being  universally  uniform  indicates  a  directing  force  be- 
yond the  solo-planetary  space.  When  a  nerve  is  exposed 
to  a  stimulus,  such  as  the  optic  to  light,  the  initiatory 
nerve  unit  polarizes,  and  the  polarization  is  always  in 
the  same  direction,  and  is  independent  of  the  character 
of  the  stimulus.  So  it  is  with  the  direction  of  polariza- 
tion of  the  nuclei  of  planetary  bodies. 

Under  the  influence  of  electric  currents  flowing  in  op- 
posite directions  the  rod  and  the  nuclei  revolve  with 
greater  velocity.  The  first  band  rapidly  contracts  later- 
ally, and  the  rays  of  the  rod  begin  to  fall  on  the  second 
band.  The  nuclei  of  this  band  become  polarized,  the 
ether  radiations  are  dissociated,  and  convection-currents 
are  established  between  the  second  band  and  the  central 
rod.  The  nuclei  in  this  band  begin  to  revolve  on  their 
axes,  and  they  acquire  greater  speed  than  other  matter  in 
the  same  band,  thus  aggregation  takes  place  around  these 
as  centers.  Some  of  the  nuclei,  being  more  favorably 
situated  and  nearer  the  central  rod,  move  with  a  greater 


42  BIRTH  OF  ELECTRICITY. 

velocity  than  others.  Thus,  as  they  cross  each  other's 
spheres  they  unite,  until  only  one  nucleus  remains  in  the 
band  of  matter,  which  becomes  a  planet.  Other  planets 
follow  from  the  same  processes  of  condensation,  and  in 
order  from  the  sun  outwards. 

In  the  meantime  the  central  rod,  by  the  chemic  re- 
actions of  its  elements,  and  from  its  increased  revolu- 
tionary speed,  assumes  the  globular  form,  and  thus  is 
gradually  transformed  into  the  sun  of  the  present  time. 
The  sun  speedily  develops  from  the  accession  of  radiant 
matter  from  the  poles  of  the  planetary  nuclei,  and  he 
gradually  assumes  control  over  the  planetary  space.  The 
radiations  of  heat  from  his  equator  striking  against  the 
first  band  retard  the  further  formation  of  its  nuclei,  and 
as  these  radiations  become  more  intense  the  nuclei  of  the 
first  band  dissolve,  the  material  of  the  band  reassuming  a 
more  uniform  consistency;  and  as  the  dimensions  of  the 
sun  continue  to  increase  this  band  becomes  his  great 
medium  for  transmitting  light  to  the  planets — the  photo- 
sphere. 

As  the  sun  increases  his  dimensions  successive  bands 
are  brought  under  his  sway,  and  the  order  of  the  solar 
system  of  to-day  is  established.  The  only  departure  from 
this  systematic  procedure  was  the  rebellion  of  Jupiter, 
which  we  have  already  recorded.  However,  when  the 
sun's  circumference  corresponds  to  the  orbit  of  Neptune, 
there  will  be  still  a  vast  sphere  tributary  to  him,  where 
matter  may  be  conceived  as  available  for  the  formation  of 
new  planets;  always  bearing  in  mind  that  as  the  sun's 
circumference  approaches  the  rim  of  the  solo-planetary 
wheel  his  influence  is  over  matter,  which  is  progressively 
more  negative  and  more  diffusible.  Thus  the  solo- 
planetary  system,  on  the  line  of  its  equator,  may  be  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere  of  negative  matter  (Fig.  10) 


GREATER  CYCLE.  43 

which  is  never  condensed;  just  as  each  planet  is  sur- 
rounded by  an  atmosphere.  This  circumferential  band 
of  negative  matter  must  exercise  a  repelling  influence  on 
similar  surfaces  of  proximate  systems,  hence,  large  inter- 
spaces filled  with  ether  exist  between  the  stars;  and  this 
repulsion  must  be  a  factor  in  determining,  subject  to 
cosmic  pressure,  the  dimensions  of  greater  or  secondary 
solo-planetary  spaces.  A  molecule,  a  nucleolus,  a  cell- 
nucleus,  an  electrically  charged  body,  a  planet,  a  sun,  are 
each  surrounded  by  a  space  such  as  surrounds  the  solo- 
planetary  system.  According  to  the  distribution  of 
energy  emanating  from  the  solo-planetary  system  our 
nearest  neighbors  should  be  the  celestial  north  and 
celestial  south  of  us,  and,  as  will  be  afterwards  shown, 
should  present  a  nebulous  appearance. 


A    CYCLE    OP    LIFE. 

The  history  of  one  planet  is,  in  the  main,  the  history 
of  all.  The  rule  must  obtain  that  the  nearer  to  the  sun 
the  shorter  the  history  of  the  planet,  the  shorter  the 
period  that  vegetable  and  animal  life  is  possible  on  its 
surface,  and  perhaps  the  shorter  the  life  of  its  individual 
plants  and  animals.  Inside  of  Neptune  there  were  prob- 
ably about  twelve  planetary  bands  in  the  embryo  of  the 
solar  system.  Others  may  be  developing  beyond  Neptune. 
The  sun  never  develops  physical  conditions  suitable  for 
plant  or  animal  life.  Its  function  is  to  convert  electric 
energy  into  heat  and  light,  and  as  a  central  body  to  regu- 
late the  conditions  of  its  tributary  planets.  It  is  the 
great  diffusive  agent  of  matter  as  the  transformation  of 
energy  at  this  seat  is  accompanied  by  ionization.  Two 
great  processes  go  on  in  the  universe,  alternately  pre- 
dominating: (1)  One  embracing  chemical  action  ac- 
companied by  the  concentration  of  matter;  (2)  the  other 
embracing  electric  action  accompanied  by  the  diffusion 
or  ionization  of  matter.  The  sun  is  the  great  and  prin- 
cipal organ  of  ionization. 

Probably  Mercury  was  the  fourth  planet  from  the 
center.  The  third  was  Vulcan,  which  may  have  been 
absorbed  by  the  sun  a  few  years  ago.  The  orbit  of  the 
first  planet  was  less  than  1,000,000  miles  in  diameter  and 
it  still  maintains  its  revolutions,  and  embryonic  band 
form,  as  the  photosphere.  The  life  of  the  second  planet 
must  have  been  of  short  duration,  and  probably  was  elec- 
trically torn  to  pieces,  its  constituent  ions  being  deposited 
on  the  poles  of  the  sun,  or  dissolved  into  vapor,  according 
to  the  degree  of  positivity  or  negativity  in  their  mole- 
cular potentials.  The  duration  of  the  life  of  a  planet 
must  be  influenced  by  the  intensity  of  incident  radia- 


CYCLE  OF  LIFE.  45 

tions  and  the  dimensions  of  its  mass.  Obviously  life  on 
the  more  immediate  inner  planets  must  have  been  short 
and  intense.  However,  we  must  not  altogether  judge 
past  conditions  by  the  present.  For  instance,  during  the 
life  period  of  Mercury  the  sun  was  comparatively  small, 
and  Jupiter  may  have  partially  assumed  the  properties 
of  a  sun,  thus  depriving  the  central  body  of  its  intensity. 
At  that  time  Jupiter  may  have  been  a  number  of  scat- 
tered planets,  which  at  all  times  during  the  periods  of 
their  revolutions  may  have  intercepted  electric  rays  from 
the  Saturn  and  Uranus  regions.  Again  the  extreme  outer 
planets  may  not  have  been  sufficiently  condensed  at  this 
period  to  promote  electric  energy.  Thus  the  conditions 
favorable  to  life  moved  from  Mercury  to  Venus  and  in- 
creased in  duration  in  the  latter;  thence  to  the  earth  and 
again  increased  in  duration.  The  law  of  progressive  in- 
crease, however,  will  have  a  break  in  the  case  of  Mars, 
but  this  is  fully  explainable  by  considering  the  influence 
of  Jupiter  on  that  planet.  Conversely  Jupiter  will  have 
a  corresponding  excess  of  increase  of  the  period  during 
which  life  can  be  supported.  So  life  scenes  shift  from 
one  planet  to  another,  from  within  outward,  from  the 
proximity  of  the  sun  to  the  outermost  possible  planetary 
condensation,  from  being  short  and  intense  to  being  long 
and  calm,  until  one  turn  in  a  perpetual  cycle  has  been 
accomplished.  Incomprehensible  as  to  its  magnitude, 
simple  in  its  plan,  uniform  in  its  principles,  great  and 
glorious  in  its  results,  in  its  contemplation  the  infinite 
system  of  cycles,  from  the  evolution  of  planets  to  the 
mitosis  of  cells,  calls  forth  a  venerable  worship  for  the  In- 
herent Force  that  directs  all. 


DYNAMICS    OF   THE    SOLAE    SYSTEM. 

As  factors  in  the  production  of  dynamic  phenomena 
the  following  laws  are  noted : 

1.  Newton's  first  law  of  motion:  "A  body  once  set 
in  motion  and  acted  upon  by  no  force  will  move  forward 
in  a  straight  line,  and  with  a  uniform  velocity,  forever." 
We  do  not  question  the  correctness  of  this  law,  but  the 
extent  of  its  application  in  explaining  phenomena  is  cer- 
tainly unwarrantable.  It  assumes  an  initiatory  force 
which  it  does  not  name,  and  is  not  satisfactory  as  to 
changing  conditions.  If  we  could  place  our  hands  on  the 
earth  and  stop  its  revolutionary  movement,  the  planet 
would  immediately  resume  that  movement  on  removal  of 
the  force  which  stopped  it.  Let  us  see:  Fig.  12  shows 
a  wire  through  which  is  flowing  an  electric  current. 
Within  the  electric  field  is  placed  a  north-seeking  pole  of 
a  magnet  bent  and  pivoted  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  free  to 


FIG.  12.  Rotation  of  an  Electric  Field.  The  northseeking 
pole  N  revolves  from  left  to  right  when  the  positive  cur- 
rent passes  from  A  to  B. 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  47 

rotate.  The  positive  current  enters  at  A  and  escapes  at 
B.  When  the  current  is  present  the  pole  rotates  in  the 
direction  indicated,  from  left  to  right;  when  the  current 
is  absent  the  rotary  movement  stops.  Newton's  law  is  just 
as  applicable  to  such  a  movement  as  it  is  to  that  of  the 
earth.  This  law  finds  expression  in  the  term  momentum. 
2.  The  electric  or  magnetic  law  is  rendered  thus :  "Un- 
like forces  mutually  attract;  like  forces  mutually  repel." 
Newton's  gravitational  law  is  formulated  as  follows: 
"Every  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  attracts  every 
other  particle  with  a  force  inversely  proportional  to  the 
square  of  the  distance."  Obviously  these  two  laws  are  not 
in  harmony,  and  hence  are  not  basic  to  a  generalization. 
Newton's  law  is  defective  in  that  it  eliminates  repulsion  as 
an  inherent  property  of  matter;  the  electric  or  magnetic 
law  is  not  cognizant  of  the  concentrativeness  of  positives 
relative  to  the  diffusibility  of  negatives.  The  writer  sub- 
mits the  following  as  a  general  law :  Unlike  forces  mutu- 
ally attract;  like  forces  if  negative  mutually  repel;  like 
forces  if  positive  mutually  repel  to  the  extent  of  their  fields 
of  induction,  and  attract  by  an  inherent  principle  of 
concentrativeness.  It  will  be  observed  that  it  is  only  in  ref- 
erence to  positives  that  the  electric  or  magnetic  law  is 
modified.  Figure  13  illustrates  the  writer's  conception 
of  the  primary  forces.  The  arrows  indicate  the  direction 
of  the  reactions.  Between  positives  the  inner  arrows  denote 
the  impenetrability  of  the  fields  of  induction,  while  the 
outer  arrows  denote  inherent  attraction.  It  must  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  positive  potentials  will  separate  by 
means  of  attraction  between  the  positive  forces  and  prox- 
imate negative  forces.  As  Newton  framed  his  law  as  apply- 
ing to  the  ret  ion  of  planets,  and  as  these  bodies  are  posi- 
tive, we  will  define  Newtonian  attraction  as  that  form  which 
occurs  between  positive  masses,  as  indicated  by  the  outer 


48 


LAWS  OF  DYNAMICS. 


arrows  (Fig.  13).  Thus  it  will  be  identical  with  the  cohe- 
sion of  positive  molecules.  For  convenience  we  wUi  tabu- 
late the  reactions  as  follows  (Fig.  13)  :  (1)  Newtonian 
attraction,  or  positive  mass  attraction,,  taking  place  between 
positive  masses;  (2)  polar  mass  attraction  folio  wing  the  ap- 
proximation of  unlike  poles;  (3)  mass  attraction  occurring 


*  ^#*^%z*  *  *  *  >  -^^ 


FIG.  13.  Indicating  Differential  Manifestations  of  Elementary 
Forces:  The  centers  represent  insulated  potentials, 
whether  Electric,  Molecular,  or  Mass;  the  primary  poten- 
tials being  surrounded  by  fields  of  induction. 

between  positive  and  negative  masses.  (1)  Pcjitive  mass 
repulsion  limited  to  the  impenetrability  of  fields  of  induc- 
tion, as  in  the  interspaces  of  positive  molecules  (inner 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  49 

arrows,  Fig.  13) ;  (2)  polar  mass  repulsion  following  the 
approximation  of  similar  poles,  also  limited  to  fields  of  in- 
duction when  positive;  (3)  mass  repulsion  occurring  be- 
tween negative  masses,  and  acting  inversely  as  square  of 
distance  (applying  also  to  proximate  negative  poles).  A 
relative  movement  of  poles  may  occur,  without  mass 
translation. 

3.  Eelative  Direction.  Around  an  electric  current  there 
is  a  magnetic  whirl.  Clerk  Maxwell  formulated  the  follow- 
ing rule  as  to  its  direction.  "The  direction  of  the  current 
and  that  of  the  resulting  magnetic  force  are  related  to  one 
another  as  are  the  rotation  and  forward  travel  of  an  or- 
dinary (right-handed)  corkscrew."  (Fig.  14.) 


FIG.  14.     The  arrows  denote  the  direction  of  positive  currents, 
and  induced  whirl   of  positive  ions. 

This  rule  applies  to  the  positive  electric  current,  and  to 
the  north-seeking  magnetic  pole.  The  writer  formulates  the 
following  general  law:  Facing  a  receding  positive,  or  ap- 
proaching negative,  primary  current,  a  positive  potential — • 
positive  magnetic  pole,  positive  ion,  or  positive  body — with- 
in the  field  of  induction,  rotates  from  left  to  right,  in  the 
upper  segment  of  its  cycle. 

Scientists  are  not  entirely  agreed  as  to  the  quality  of 
the  north-seeking  pole  of  a  magnet.  It  is  the  opinion  of  the 
writer  that  it  is  positive,  and  similar  to  the  terrestrial 
north :  The  compass  does  not  behave  as  if  it  were  directed  by 
a  fixed  potential  such  as  the  pole  of  a  magnet,  or  even 
by  the  polarized  potential  of  an  electrolyte;  but  it  does  be- 
have as  if  directed  by  current  potentials.  We  have  shown 


50  LAWS  OF  DYNAMICS. 

(Fig.  7)  that  from  the  earth's  equator  a  negative  current 
flows  northward,  and  a  positive  current  southward,  each  of 
which  escapes  at  its  respective  pole.  Now  mark  the  differ- 
ence between  the  area  embraced  within  a  circumferential 
line  passing  through  the  north  electric,  or  so-called  mag- 
netic, pole  of  the  earth,  and  the  similar  electric  area  of  the 
south.  It  is  apparent  that  the  positive  and  negative  elec- 
trodes of  the  earth  bear  a  wonderful  analogy  to  the  elec- 
trodes of  a  static  machine  selected  as  to  size  so  as  to  give  a 
maximum  spark  with  a  constant  electro-motive  force  (Fig. 
15) ;  and  to  the  different  dimensions  of  blood-clotting  at 
positive  and  negative  electrodes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  16.  Truly, 
these  are  evidence  of  the  concentrativeness  of  positivities, 
and  the  diffusibility  of  negativities;  and  they  are  also  evi- 
dence that  the  construction  of  Fig.  7  accords  with  ter- 
restrial electrical  facts. 

The  writer  concludes  that  the  positive  pole  of  the  mag- 
netic needle  points  northwards,  and  that  its  actions  are  the 
result  of  a  couple — the  electric  currents  of  the  sun  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  earth's  rotation  on  its  axis,  and  the  electric 
currents  of  the  earth.  The  magnetic  dip  belongs  to  the 
influence  of  the  earth's  currents  and  is  similar  to  the  at- 
traction of  a  current  for  iron  filings.  The  dip  gets  larger 
as  the  rotation  velocity  of  the  earth  decreases  towards  the 
poles,  and  as  the  earth's  electric  currents  condense  and 
approach  nearer  the  surface.  If  the  earth's  currents  en- 
tirely controlled  the  needle  it  would  point  east  and  west, 
or  at  right  angles  to  the  currents.  The  needle  being  acted 
upon  by  two  currents  of  opposite  direction,  its  positive  pole 
takes  the  electrolytic  direction  of  a  positive  ion  going  in  an 
opposite  direction  to  a  negative  current,  or,  seeking  the 
cathode  of  the  sun.  The  north-seeking  pole  is  certainly 
positive,  and  obeys  the  rotary  law  (Fig.  12)  as  formulated, 
as  do  also  the  sun  and  planets.  The  poles  of  the  earth,  of 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAK  SYSTEM. 


51 


the  compass-needle,  and  of  the  elements  of  the  photosphere 
(Fig.  7,  AA)  have  a  uniform  general  direction,  and  the 
primary  currents  of  the  sun  (Fig.  1,  CC)  must  be  a  com- 
mon directive  cause.  The  currents  of  the  earth  being  di- 
rected by  its  polar  potentials  point  differently. 


FIG.    15.     Electrodes   of   such   relative   size   as   to   give   a   maxi- 
mum spark. 


FIG.  16.  Differential  clotting  of  blood  at  Positive  and  Nega- 
tive Electrodes.  Compare  these  with  the  polar  electric 
areas  of  the  Earth.  (Fig.  7). 

4.  Ampere's  laws:  (1)  "Parallel  electric  currents  of 
opposite  direction  mutually  repel;  those  of  the  same  direc- 
tion mutually  attract."  Fig.  17  indicates  the  manifesta- 
tions of  this  law.  When  the  currents  are  of  the  same  direc- 


52 


SOLAR  MOTIONS. 


tion  the  induced  lines  of  force  tend  to  embrace  the  two 
currents;  when  they  are  opposite  in  direction,  the  lines  of 
force  tend  to  pass  between  and  repel  them.  (2)  A  series 
of  laws  may  be  summed  up:  "Currents  obliquely  directed 
induce  stresses  in  the  surrounding  media  tending  to 
straighten  their  paths,  as  nearly  as  possible,  in  parallel 
direction."  (3)  The  force  exerted  between  two  parallel 


FIG.  17.  Attraction  of  currents  of  the  same,  and  repulsion 
of  those  of  opposite  direction.  The  arrows  denote  the  di- 
rection of  the  whirl. 

portions  of  circuits  is  proportional  to  the  product  of  the  two 
currents,  to  the  length  of  the  portions,  and  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  simple  distance  between  them."  This  law 
of  Ampere's  is  fundamental  to  Kepler's  second  law :  "The 
radius-vector  of  a  planet  describes  equal  areas  in  equal 
times."  The  distinctive  quality  of  Ampere's  laws  is  their 
fundamentality,  being  as  applicable  to  solar  systems  as  to 
simple  electric  circuits.  His  was  one  of  the  greatest  minds. 
SOLAE  MOTION'S.  We  have  described  the  sun's  mass 
as  possessing  a  central  nucleus  or  rod  of  extreme  density, 
metallic  or  positive  in  quality,  and  having  in  a  high  degree 
the  property  of  electric  conduction.  Surrounding  the  cen- 
tral nucleus  the  masses  are  less  dense,  and  according  to 
spectroscopic  evidence  are  made  up  of  positive  matter  in 
which  hydrogen  largely  figures.  The  following  are  types 
of  chemic  elements  proved  by  means  of  spectroscopic  ob- 
servation to  exist  in  the  photosphere:  Hydrogen,  carbon, 
iron,  nickel,  copper.  Electronegative  elements  have  not 
been  spectroscopically  observed  in  the  sun.. 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  53 

We  may  assume  that  the  central  nucleus  extending  from 
pole  to  pole  is  constituted  of  the  more  dense  of  the  elec- 
tropositive elements.  We  have  concluded  that  electrified 
matter  emanating  from  the  poles  of  the  planets  is  being 
perpetually  deposited  at  the  poles  of  the  sun,  and  that  elec- 
tric currents  pass  from  the  poles  to  the  equator.  The  ques- 
tion arises:  What  effect  do  these  current  forces  produce 
on  the  photosphere  ?  The  answer  must  be  rotation. 

It  is  evident  that  the  photosphere  must  be  the  induction 
field  of  currents  passing  through  the  central  sun.  Now,  if 
we  apply  the  corkscrew  rule  to  the  electric  forces  of  the 
sun  we  find  that  if  we  mentally  stand  off  the  south  pole, 
the  positive  current  is  receding  and  the  negative  approach- 
ing, and  as  the  photosphere  is  made  up  of  positive  ions 
the  rotary  direction  should  be  from  left  to  right,  and  this  is 
just  what  we  find.  We  can  mentally  assume  a  position  off 
the  south  pole  of  the  sun  and  see  the  great  solo-planetary 
wheel,  its  hub,  its  immense  spokes  .of  force,  their  terminal 
planetary  bulbs,  and  its  fanciful  marginal  rim  of  nega- 
tivities, rotating  from  left  to  right  in  the  upper  segment  of 
the  cycle,  just  as  we  can  mentally  picture  the  cyclic  whirl 
of  matter  in  the  field  of  induction  of  a  wire  through  which 
flows  an  electric  current.  The  fundamental  principle  is  the 
same,  and  the  cyclic  direction  follows  a  common  law. 

Observation  of  the  sun's  spots  has  shown  that  the 
equatorial  zone  has  a  rotary  period  of  25  days,  while  at  the 
latitude  of  40°  the  period  is  27  days.  In  regard  to  this 
phenomenon  it  must  be  remembered  that  cohesive  force  in 
the  photosphere  is  relatively  absent.  The  explanation  of 
this  rotary  peculiarity  is  rendered  possible  when  we  con- 
sider the  sun  as  a  great  electrolyte.  Fig.  7  indicates  the 
direction  of  the  central  electric  currents  in  the  sun  towards 
the  equator.  Positive  ions  accumulate  at  the  north  and 
negative  ions  at  the  south  pole.  The  induced  currents  are 


54  SOLAR  MOTIONS. 

shown  as  flowing  in  the  opposite  direction,  or  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles,  as  charged  ions  (Fig.  7).  Now,  we 
see  that  the  positive  ions  accumulating  at  the  north  pole 
will  exercise  a  retarding  influence  over  the  induced  positive 
current,  and  the  negative  ions  accumulating  at  the  south 
pole  will  retard  the  negative  induced  current.  The  retard- 
ing influence  will  be  in  direct  proportion  as  the  distance 
from  the  equator.  It  is  possible  that  the  portions  of  the 
sun's  mass  around  the  poles  (including  its  central  rod) 
have  no  rotary  motion,  or  rotate  in  the  opposite  direction 
to  that  of  the  photosphere.  It  is  obvious  that  the  velocity 
of  photospheric  rotation  is  directly  proportional  to  the  dis- 
tance from  the  inhibitory  polar  potentials. 

Another  aspect  of  the  electric  conditions  of  the  sun  must 
be  referred  to :  Great  embankments  of  positive  and  nega- 
tive ionized  matter,  absorbed  from  the  planets,  and  built 
up  at  their  respective  poles  (Fig.  7)  periodically  exceed  the 
control  of  the  primary  electric  currents,  and  just  as  ions 
in  an  electrolyte  are  attracted,  and  by  union  set  energy  free, 
so  the  ions  in  the  sun  are  attracted  towards  the  equator 
and  by  union  set  free  vast  quantities  of  ether,  thus  causing 
the  disturbances  manifested  as  sun  spots.  Analogous  re- 
verse or  polarized  currents  admit  of  easy  demonstration. 

Viewing  the  sun  as  a  great  electrolyte  with  the  primary 
currents  passing  through  its  center,  and  a  diffused  periphery 
constituting  the  field  of  induction,  we  must  regard  the  lines 
of  force  radiating  from  the  primary  current  as  extending 
in  a  wheel-like  manner  to  the  limits  of  the  solo-planetary 
space.  These  lines  of  force  will  extend  until  neutralized 
by  induced  or  opposing  forces;  but  we  must  consider  that 
the  greater  part  of  this  space  is  filled  with  the  non-neutral- 
izing substance,  ether.  Hence,  we  must  conclude  that  the 
primary  currents  of  the  sun  are  neutralized  by  the  induced 
currents  of  the  photosphere  and  potentials  of  the  planets, 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  55 

interplanetary  ether  being  only  a  medium  of  conveying 
force.  Further  as  the  photosphere  rotates  so  must  the 
planets  rotate,  only  the  former  maintains  the  normal  cir- 
cular path,,  and  thus  the  explanation  of  the  movements  of 
the  photosphere  merely  involves  the  law  of  positive  ions 
rotating  round  a  current  in  a  given  direction,  together  with 
certain  laws  of  attraction  and  repulsion.  In  the  photo- 
sphere we  see  evidence  of  a  circular  movement  in  which 
forces,  acting  according  to  Newton's  law  of  gravitation 
between  positive  elements,  and  Ampere's  law  of  repulsion 
between  currents  of  opposite  direction,  are  mutually  neu- 
tralized. Although  the  mutual  neutralization  of  these 
forces  acting  according  to  their  respective  laws  is  preserved 
throughout  the  solo-planetary  space,  yet,  problems  of  plan- 
etary orbits  are  more  numerous  than  those  of  photospheric 
rotation,  and  are  more  difficult  of  solution.  It  must  be 
clearly  comprehended  that  static  forces  merely  attract  or 
repel,  and  that  it  requires  a  current  movement  to  produce 
a  rotation,  which  in  its  simplicity  is  circular  or  cyclic  in 
form.  It  will  be  evident  that  all  deviations  in  the  orbits 
of  planetary  bodies  from  the  simple  circular  movement  of 
the  photosphere  are  explainable  by  the  action  of  static 
forces;  and  it  will  be  evident  that  the  circular  movement 
and  its  direction  are  the  effects  of  current  forces,  and  that 
true  circularity  is  the  primary  element  of  all  orbits. 

PLANETABY  MOTIONS.  The  motions  of  the  earth 
and  those  of  the  other  planets  are  mainly  responsive  to 
current  and  static  forces  in  the  sun.  The  electric  currents 
of  the  earth  (as  those  of  the  photosphere)  are  induced  cur- 
rents, although  the  induction  is  directed  by  the  differ- 
ential polarities  of  the  earth  as  an  electrolyte.  To  solve 
the  problem  of  the  earth's  motions  we  must  clearly  under- 
stand that  the  sun  and  planets  are  positive  bodies  having 
a  mutual  attraction  according  to  Newton's  second  law  of 


56  PLANETARY  MOTIONS. 

force  (Newtonian  attraction).  If  we  conceive  that  matter 
within  the  solo-planetary  space  consists  of  an  equal  amount 
of  positive  and  negative  units,  but  that  owing  to  the  con- 
centrativeness  of  positive  units  and  diffusibility  of  negative 
units  they  become  unequal  in  their  distribution,  the  posi- 
tive quality  of  certain  bodies  and  the  negative  quality  of 
others  will  be  easily  understood.  A  study  of  the  move- 
ments of  cometary  bodies,  together  with  spectroscopic  evi- 
dence, is  convincing  that  comets  are  negative  masses,  per- 
haps in  some  instances  with  positive  nuclei,  condensations 
from  the  distant  sphere  of  negativities;  and  that  the  sun 
and  planets,  including  our  moon,  are  positive  bodies  con- 
densed within  the  central  sphere  of  positivities.  (Fig.  10) 

If  the  forces  according  to  Newton's  law  of  gravitation, 
and  those  according  to  Ampere's  law  of  repulsion,  are  ap- 
plied to  the  earth,  and  that  body  placed  so  that  its  equa- 
torial plane  is  identical  with  that  of  the  sun,  the  earth 
would  describe  a  complete  circle,  if  not  disturbed  by  other 
forces.  Accepting  the  circular  path  within  the  plane  of  the 
sun's  equator  (with  terrestrial  equinoctial  conditions  ob- 
taining) as  the  normal  orbit,  we  will  proceed  to  consider 
the  causes  which  produce  the  departure  from  normality. 
It  is  evident  that  the  direction  of  the  rotary  movements 
of  the  earth  and  other  planets  conform  to  the  direction  of 
the  rotation  of  the  photosphere,  all  being  within  a  common 
electric  field,  and  all  moving  as  positive  ions  round  electric 
currents  flowing  in  constant  directions. 

In  Fig.  18  let  the  broken  line  indicate  the  normal  circu- 
lar pathway  of  the  earth  round  the  sun,  and  the  unbroken 
line  the  present  elliptical  orbit,  and  let  us  account  for  the 
deviations  from  normality  by  the  application  of  the  laws 
noted.  We  have  already  stated  that  the  obliquity  of  the 
earth's  orbit  from  the  plane  of  the  sun's  equator  was  at- 
tained as  a  resultant  of  two  or  more  orbits  by  the  union 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 


57 


s 


NJ 


\  V 


\  *"* 


FIG.  18.  The  Broken  Line  indicates  Normal  Circularity;  the 
Unbroken  Line  the  Earth's  Orbit;  the  plane  of  the  paper 
indicates  the  Plane  of  the  Ecliptic;  and  the  Radiating 
Lines  the  Plane  of  the  Sun's  Equator.  The  letters  N  S  de- 
note the  Approximating  Poles  of  the  Sun  and  Earth.  The 
North  Pole  of  the  Sun  is  indicated  as  pointing  upward. 
The  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  is  only  1-60,  it  being 
exaggerated  in  the  figure;  and  the  points  at  which  the 
ellipse  cuts  the  circle  are  only  approximately  indicated. 


58  PLANETARY  MOTIONS. 

of  different  masses.  The  obliquity  does  not  account  for 
the  phases  of  the  earth's  orbit,  but  is  an  essential  element 
which  allows  static  forces  to  act  on  the  planet,  as  it  changes 
its  relative  position  to  the  sun. 

If  we  consider  the  application  of  gravitational  attraction 
according  to  Newton's  law,  and  of  repulsion  according  to 
Ampere's  law  of  opposite  currents,  we  must  conclude  that 
in  all  cases  they  will  balance  each  other.  If  the  earth  ap- 
proaches the  sun  nearer  than  the  normal  circuit  attraction 
according  to  the  first  and  repulsion  according  to  the  sec- 
ond are  increased ;  if  the  earth  is  beyond  the  normal  circuit 
both  attraction  and  repulsion  are  decreased  according  to 
their  respective  laws.  We  can  therefore  eliminate  these 
laws  as  factors  of  modification  of  normal  circularity  of  the 
earth's  orbit.  Only,  as  the  law  of  gravitation  is  based  on 
static  forces,  and  the  law  of  repulsion  is  based  on  current 
forces,  it  is  clear  that  the  nearer  the  earth  is  to  the  sun  it 
must  travel  at  a  greater  rate  according  to  Ampere's  third 
law,  the  velocity  not  being  opposed  by  Newton's  law ;  which 
accords  with  Kepler's  second  law.  This  is  an  important 
consideration :  Newtonian  attraction  and  Amperian  repul- 
sion oppose  each  other  to  the  limit  of  the  gravitational 
force,  but  there  is  no  factor  in  gravitational  law  opposing 
velocity  according  to  Ampere's  third  law.  Hence,  the 
earth  approaches  the  vernal  equinox  with  increased  momen- 
tum, and  approaches  the  autumnal  equinox  with  decreased 
momentum.  It  is  apparent  that  as  Newton's  law  of  attrac- 
tion and  Ampere's  law  of  repulsion  give  the  normal  orbital 
path,  and  as  the  oblique  modification  of  this  path  has  been 
shown  to  be  the  result  of  union  of  two  or  more  bodies,  we 
may  eliminate  these  elements  from  further  consideration, 
only  remembering  that  according  to  Ampere's  or  Kepler's 
law  the  momentum  is  increased  or  decreased  in  accordance 
with  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun. 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  59 

Heat  and  light  radiations  may  possess  the  property  of 
repelling  bodies  and  thus  reinforce  the  repulsion  of  electric 
currents  of  opposite  directions.  These  energies,  however, 
are  chiefly  important  (as  regards  orbital  revolutions)  in 
being  sources  from  which  electric  currents  are  transformed. 
We  see  comets  approach  the  sun  and  retreat  from  that  body, 
when  apparently  they  are  equally  under  the  influence  of  the 
solar  rays. 

On  March  20th — the  vernal  equinox — the  poles  of  the 
earth  are  equidistant  from  the  sun's  center.  At  this  date 
the  earth  is  7.15°  south  of  the  sun's  equatorial  plane,  and  its 
orbit  and  the  normal  circuit  are  about  straight.  Obviously 
the  two  south  poles  (Fig.  18  SS)  of  the  bodies  approximate, 
and  hence  their  electric  currents  are  not  parallel.  Mass 
attraction  according  to  Newton's  law,  and  repulsion  accord- 
ing to  Ampere's  law,  being  balanced,  the  acting  forces  are 
those  of  repulsion.  Two  south  poles  approximating  cause 
mass  repulsion,  while  the  currents  tend  to  straighten  by 
repelling  the  south  and  attracting  the  north ;  and  the  polar 
forces  also  act  in  the  same  way  by  likes  repelling  and  un- 
likes  attracting.  In  addition,  the  earth  enters  this  portion 
of  its  orbit  with  increased  momentum,  as  a  result  of  the 
increased  rotary  velocity,  according  to  Ampere's  third  law, 
which  tends  to  force  it  in  a  straight  path,  according  to 
Newton's  first  law.  The  planet  is  thus  carried  beyond  the 
normal  circuit. 

The  electric  currents  of  the  sun  and  earth  must  become 
parallel  shortly  after  March  20th,  when  there  is  attraction 
between  the  proximate  poles — the  north  of  the  earth  and 
the  south  of  the  sun  (Fig.  18) ;  and  the  polar  attraction 
is  accompanied  by  polar  mass  attraction.  But  both  phases 
of  attraction  are  slight  at  the  beginning,  and  the  first  is 
resisted  by  the  action  of  the  currents  against  distortion  of 
their  paths  from  parallel  directions  (Ampere's  second  law), 


60  PLANETARY  MOTIONS. 

and  the  latter  by  momentum  (Newton's  first  law).  As  the 
earth,  on  moving  forward  in  its  orbit,  turns  its  north  more 
towards  the  sun's  south  pole,  polar  mass  attraction  in- 
creases, but  evidently  just  as  attraction  would  become  pre- 
dominant the  earth  crosses  the  solar  equatorial  plane  on 
June  3d,  when  two  north  poles  approximate,  and  polar 
mass  attraction  ceases,  and  is  replaced  by  repulsion  from 
the  strain  of  distorted  fields,  due  to  the  angular  paths  of  the 
electric  currents  of  the  two  bodies,  according  to  Ampere's 
second  law.  Polar  approximation,  however,  has  gained  an 
impetus  which  carries  the  north  of  the  earth  sunward  until 
the  summer  solstice  on  June  21st.  The  increased  orbital 
speed  according  to  Ampere's  or  Kepler's  law,  and  the  re- 
pulsive force  of  two  south  or  negative  poles  approximating, 
from  the  perihelion  to  the  equinox,  give  a  momentum, 
which  with  the  straightening  of  the  paths  of  the  electric 
currents  of  the  two  bodies  after  June  21st,  carry  the  earth 
to  its  aphelion  on  July  6th,  the  maximum  divergence  of  its 
orbit  from  the  normal  circular  path;  the  main  opposing 
force  being  mass  attraction  resulting  from  approximation 
of  opposite  poles  during  the  period  ending  June  3d. 

At  the  summer  solstice,  June  21st,  the  north  pole  of  the 
earth  reaches  its  relatively  maximum  approachment  to  the 
sun.  This  pole  has  pointed  sunward  since  June  4th  against 
the  relatively  greater  attraction  of  the  south  pole  by  the 
sun's  north,  and  against  the  resistance  of  parallel  currents 
to  the  distortion  of  their  paths  since  the  end  of  March. 
The  opposing  forces  now  become  dominant:  The  electric 
currents  tend  to  straighten  their  course,  and  the  south  pole 
of  the  earth  is  attracted  by  the  north  pole  of  the  sun,  hence, 
relatively  the  north  pole  of  the  earth  is  turned  back  by  the 
conjoint  action  of  these  forces.  In  addition,  although  the 
two  north  poles  still  approximate,  there  is  an  absence  of 
polar  mass  repulsion,  owing  to  the  concentrativeness  of 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  61 

positive  potentials.  Now  mark:  Notwithstanding  that 
theie  is  approximation  of  similar  poles — north  to  north — 
from  July  6th  to  the  autumnal  equinox,  the  earth's  orbit 
contracts,  and  the  conclusion  is  inevitable  that  the  chief 
cause  is  the  absence  of  polar  mass  repulsion  owing  to  posi- 
tive concentrativeness.  In  fact,  reversely,  apposition  of  the 
positive  poles,  with  an  intervening  mass  of  ether  in  the 
interstellar  space,  may  give  polar  mass  attraction.  Concur- 
rently with  the  positive  polar  action  there  is  decreased 
momentum,  which  lessens  the  resistance  to  the  approach- 
ment  of  the  two  bodies;  and  at  the  same  time  the  electric 
paths  tend  to  straighten,  which  is  done  by  relatively  attract- 
ing the  negative  and  repelling  the  positive  pole,  which,  it 
must  be  remembered,  is  not  a  movement  of  translation  of 
the  earth's  mass. 

On  September  22d,  the  autumnal  equinox,  the  earth's 
orbit  is  about  even  with  the  normal  circuit,  and  its  poles 
are  equidistant  from  the  sun's  center.  At  this  time  the 
earth  is  7.15°  north  of  the  equatorial  plane,  and  hence  the 
two  north  poles  approximate,  and  therefore  the  paths  of 
the  electric  currents  are  not  parallel.  The  same  forces  are 
dominant,  although  modified,  for  a  short  period  after  Sep- 
tember 22 d,  as  those  previous  to  that  date.  When  the  elec- 
tric currents  become  parallel  the  south  pole  of  the  earth  and 
the  north  pole  of  the  sun  approximate,  and  this  presentation 
prevails  until  December  5th,  when  the  earth  crosses  the 
equatorial  plane  of  the  sun.  Hence,  during  this  period 
there  is  polar  mass  attraction  between  the  two  bodies.  Now, 
observe  that  the  earth  enters  this  period — from  September 
22d  onward — without  the  increased  momentum,  and  with- 
out the  repulsion  of  like  forces  which  occur  at  the  vernal 
equinox.  It  follows  that  the  planet's  course  during  the 
period  of  polar  mass  attraction  from  the  approximation 


62  PLANETARY  MOTIONS. 

of  the  south,  pole  of  the  earth  to  the  north  of  the  sun  effects 
a  contracted  orbit,  which,  after  December  5th,  is  continued 
to  the  perihelion  by  the  momenta. 

On  January  4th  the  earth  is  at  the  perihelion,  its  point 
of  maximum  orbital  constriction  relative  to  the  normal  cir- 
cuit. The  two  south  poles  approximate  and  the  south  of  the 
earth  is  repelled  and  its  north  is  attracted.  The  approxima- 
tion of  two  south  poles  implies  mass  repulsion.  The  move- 
ment of  translation  and  the  relative  polar  movement  con- 
tinue until  the  vernal  equinox,  at  which  date  we  com- 
menced the  consideration  of  this  part  of  the  subject. 

This  period — from  perihelion  to  the  vernal  equinox — 
is  the  great  repulsive  period  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  dur- 
ing its  orbital  course.  The  period  is  analogous  to  the  re- 
pulsive phase  of  cometary  orbits,  and  the  same  fundamental 
force  of  repulsion  between  negative  potentials,  or  the  dif- 
fusibility  of  negative  units,  is  the  cause  in  both  instances. 
When  we  come  to  study  the  causes  of  the  eccentric  paths 
of  comets  this  fact  will  be  more  clearly  shown. 

Compare  the  period  from  aphelion  to  the  autumnal  equi- 
nox with  that  from  perihelion  to  the  vernal  equinox,  and 
we  see  in  the  one  a  contracting  orbit  although  two  north 
(positive)  poles  approximate,  in  the  other  an  expanding 
orbit  when  two  south  (negative)  poles  approximate,  and 
we  must  be  struck  with  the  correctness  of  the  great  funda- 
mental conception  of  the  concentrativeness  of  positive  ulti- 
mates  and  the  diffusibility  of  negative  ultimates,  as  ex- 
pressed in  Fig.  13.  It  is  true  that  there  is  increased  mo- 
mentum during  the  expanding  period  and  decreased  mo- 
mentum during  the  contracting  period,  but  these  facts  are 
sequential  to  the  same  great  law  of  ultimate  units  being 
differentiated  on  the  bases  of  an  inherent  attraction  in  posi- 
tives, and  an  inherent  repulsion  in  negatives.  We  observe 
in  the  earth's  orbit  manifestations  of  negative  diffusibility 


DYNAMICS  OF  SOLAR  SYSTEM.  63 

just  as  we  observe  in  its  atmosphere  manifestations  of  the 
same  principle;  of  positive  concentrativeness  just  as  we 
observe  in  the  earth's  mass  manifestations  of  this  prin- 
ciple; and  just  as  we  observe  manifestations  of  both  prin- 
ciples in  the  distribution  of  matter  within  the  solo-plan- 
etary space;  and  we  have  a  right  to  conclude  on  this  addi- 
tional evidence  (as  we  have  formerly  concluded  from  elec- 
trical, chemical,  physical,  and  physiological  evidence)  that 
these  principles  are  fundamental,  and  of  universal  appli- 
cation. 


COMETS. 

The  number  of  these  bodies  is  considered  to  be  enormous ; 
perhaps  they  are  innumerable.  It  is  only  the  ones  that  ap- 
pear brilliant  from  the  earth  that  are  rare.  The  perihelia 
of  some  of  them  are  less  than  five  million  miles,  and  a  large 
proportion  of  them  come  within  the  earth's  orbit.  The  in- 
clination of  their  orbits  to  the  ecliptic  range  from  0°  to 
90°.  The  constituent  parts  of  a  comet  are:  (1)  The  coma, 
a  nebulous  cloud  of  matter,  faintly  shining,  and  spherical 
or  oval  in  shape.  (2)  The  nucleus,  a  bright  star-like  point 
near  the  center  of  the  coma,  commonly  appearing  as  the 
comet  approaches  the  sun.  There  may  be  two  or  more 
nuclei.  The  coma  and  nucleus  constitute  the  head.  (3) 
The  tail,  a  train  of  light,  stretching  from  the  comet,  follow- 
ing the  head  when  approaching,  and  preceding  the  head 
when  receding  from  the  sun — the  tail  is  always  directed 
from  the  sun.  The  dimensions  of  comets  are  enormous, 
the  head  being  sometimes  larger  than  the  sun.  A  comet 
less  than  10,000  miles  in  diameter  would  likely  escape  ob- 
servation. When  a  comet  approaches  the  sun  its  head 
usually  contracts,  and  expands  again  on  receding.  This 
feature  was  particularly  noticeable  in  Enckes'  comet,  which 
at  perihelion  had  a  volume  l/10,000th  of  its  original  dimen- 
sion, expanding  in  an  equal  degree  on  receding.  The  length 
of  the  tail  of  a  comet  varies  from  10,000,000  to  100,000,000 
miles.  The  comet  of  1882  was  8,000  times  the  bulk  of  the 
sun.  Notwithstanding  their  bulk,  their  densities  being 
low,  the  aggregate  amount  of  ponderable  matter  is  ex- 
tremely small  compared  with  that  of  planetary  bodies. 

Spectroscopic  investigation  shows  the  presence  of  lumin- 
ous carbon  compounds,  cyanogen  being  suggested.  When 
a  comet  approaches  very  near  the  sun  its  spectrum  gives 
evidence  of  the  presence  of  metals — sodium,  magnesium, 


COMETS.  65 

iron.  There  is  evidence  pointing  towards  comets  changing 
their  spectra  with  their  distance  from  the  sun.  A  comet 
approaching  the  sun  increases  in  brightness.,  and  the  newly 
formed  nucleus  emits  envelopes  or  streamers  of  light,  from 
the  side  nearest  the  sun,  which  concentrically  follow  each 
other,  with  a  periodicity  of  some  hours.  The  nucleus  during 
these  processes  usually  grows  smaller  and  brighter  just 
before  the  liberation  of  each  wave  of  light.  Although  the 
nucleus  of  the  comet  seems  to  oscillate  there  have  been  no 
evidence  of  continuous  rotation. 

The  material  forming  the  tail  is  supposed,  at  least  partly, 
to  be  emitted  by  the  nucleus,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  ob- 
servers that  this  material  is  repelled  by  both  the  comet  and 
the  sun.  As  the  comet  passes  around  the  sun  at  its  peri- 
helion, its  tail  swings  round  with  a  tremendous  velocity, 
so  that  the  tail  continues  to  be  the  relatively  distant  part. 
(Pig.  7.) 

When  a  comet  moves  in  an  ellipse  it  returns  at  regular 
intervals,  but  if  its  orbit  is  hyperbolic  it  is  never  observed 
again.  Professor  Pierce  suggested  that  the  home  of  the 
comet  is  a  shell  of  nebulous  matter  accompanying  the  solar 
system,  and  lying  between  it  and  the  nearest  fixed  stars. 

We  have  designated  the  outer  portion  of  the  solo-plan- 
etary space,  constituting  the  rim  of  the  great  wheel,  as  the 
region  of  negativities.  This  is  the  "home  of  the  comets." 
The  first  conception  that  presents  in  regard  to  these  bodies 
is  that  they  are  negative  masses.  Some  of  them,  however, 
act  as  if  possessing  positive  nuclei.  Evidently  they  are 
not  polarized,  and  do  not  possess  electric  currents;  but 
incident  light  may  be  transformed  into  electrical  charges 
by  the  differential  potentials  of  their  elements.  This 
method  of  charging  can  be  demonstrated  by  throwing  light 
on  a  metallic  surface,  when  the  metal  and  the  atmosphere 
are  charged  differentially. 


66  COMETS. 

Each  molecule  of  ponderable  material,  whether  positive 
or  negative,  has  a  certain  inductive  potential,  and  the 
greater  this  potential  the  greater  the  intermolecular  spaces 
of  the  material.  (Fig.  2.)  The  intermolecular  spaces  are 
modified  by  pressure.  Now,  when  molecules  are  brought 
under  the  influence  of  a  greater  potential  (as  the  potential 
of  the  sun)  their  inductive  potentials  are  partially  neutral- 
ized, the  intermolecular  spaces  are  accordingly  diminished 
in  size,  and  the  substance  becomes  more  dense.  This  phe- 
nomenon is  illustrated  by  the  formation  of  a  cloud  of 
vapor  when  aqueous  gas  is  brought  into  an  electric  field; 
a  fact  demonstrated  by  Townsend  in  experiments  recorded 
by  Professor  Thomson.  It  is  easily  understood  that  with  the 
increasing  density,  as  the  comet  approaches  the  sun,  there 
will  be  evolved  large  quantities  of  ether  from  the  molecular 
interspaces,  the  radiation  of  which  will  cause  streams  of 
light  to  emanate  from  the  nucleus.  In  addition,  a  mole- 
cule, or  a  mass,  of  high  potential  passing  through  ether  will 
polarize  and  depolarize  the  ether  in  its  course,  thus  im- 
pulses in  the  ether  are  sent  out  from  the  cometary  mass. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  causes  of  differentiation 
between  the  orbits  of  comets  and  those  of  planets,  the  most 
striking  features  are  the  absence  of  polarity,  and  conse- 
quent absence  of  electric  currents  in  the  cometary  mass, 
and  their  presence  in  the  planetary  body.  Hence,  in  con- 
sidering cometary  phenomena,  we  can  eliminate  Ampere's 
law  of  repulsion  between  currents  of  opposite  direction, 
and  the  orbital  variations  arising  from  the  differentiated 
poles  in  the  moving  body,  which  are  determining  factors  as 
to  the  course  followed  by  planets.  This  simplifies  the  mat- 
ter to  gravitational  attraction  according  to  Newton's  law, 
and  attraction  or  repulsion  according  to  the  law  of  likes  and 
unlikes  as  occurring  between  the  north  or  south  pole  of  the 
sun  and  a  body  of  similar  or  dissimilar  quality  to  that  of  the 


COMETS.  67 

proximate  solar  pole.  In  fact,  if  we  confine  Newtonian 
gravitation  as  applying  to  attraction  between  two  positive 
bodies,  we  may  be  able  to  eliminate  it  from  consideration 
in  reference  to  the  orbital  course  of  comets;  leaving  only 
attraction  between  dissimilar,  and  repulsion  between  simi- 
lar (negative)  forces,  as  applying  to  these  bodies.  We 
must  consider  a  comet  as  a  mass  of  negative  matter,  with- 
out poles,  and  without  electric  currents ;  although  particles 
of  a  cometary  mass  may  be  differentially  charged  by  inci- 
dent rays  from  the  sun.  Heat  and  light  rays  falling  on  a 
mass,  and  meeting  resistance,  may  be  transformed  into 
electric  charges,  the  more  positive  elements  being  positively 
charged,  and  the  more  negative  elements  being  negatively 
charged;  if,  however,  the  resistance  to  the  passing  of  the 
rays  is  slight  the  elements  will  be  charged  oppositely  to 
their  own  potentials.  It  must  also  be  considered  that  nega- 
tive elements  are  not  electric  conductors. 

We  can  conceive  that  from  the  domain  of  diffusible  nega- 
tivity, perhaps  many  times  larger  than  the  space  embraced 
within  the  orbit  of  Neptune,  during  the  period  of  transition 
from  the  nebulous  state  to  partial  condensation,  great 
masses  of  matter  will  gravitate  towards  the  center  of  the 
solo-planetary  space.  Matter  within  this  region  must  ro- 
tate round  the  sun  in  a  common  orbit,  perhaps  as  a  great 
circular  band  of  nebulosity,  negative  in  character  as  a  whole 
but  spotted  with  multitudinous  condensations  of  positive 
nuclei.  At  certain  periods,  when  the  relative  positions  of 
the  outer  planets  are  favorable  to  attraction,  immense 
nebulous  masses  lose  their  equilibrium  and  start  towards 
the  sun.  We  must  here  recall  the  relative  position  of  the 
sun's  equatorial  plane  to  the  solo-planetary  space  (Figs. 
7,  10) .  It  is  conceivable  that  the  cometary  masses  may  be 
diverted  from  their  equilibrated  orbits  either  north  or 
south  of  the  sun's  equator,  by  the  planetary  influence,  the 


68  COMETS. 

forces  at  work  at  this  stage  being  the  attraction  of  masses — 
positive  potentials  on  the  part  of  the  sun  and  planets,  and 
negative  potentials  on  the  part  of  the  comets.  If,  however, 
processes  of  condensation  have  progressed  to  a  certain  rela- 
tive point  there  may  be  a  large  positive  nucleus  to  the 
mass.  In  this  case  there  may  be  a  true  Newtonian  gravi- 
tational attraction  between  positive  bodies.  It  must  be 
considered,  however,  that  as  a  body  condenses,  it  becomes 
polarized,  with  induced  electric  currents,  and  hence  a  true 
planet  is  born,  rotating  in  a  true  planetary  orbit. 

A  comet  may  commence  its  centripetal  course  at  any  part 
of  the  negative  region,  but  at  some  point  of  its  inward 
course,  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  orbit  of  Jupi- 
ter, it  will  get  northward  of  the  equatorial  plane  of  the 
sun.  This  relative  position  will  be  brought  about  by  at- 
traction between  the  north  poles  of  the  sun  and  inner 
planets  and  the  negative  mass  of  the  comet.  Could  a 
negative  cometary  mass  fall  into  the  north  pole  of  the  sun  ? 
No.  Eegarding  the  possibility  of  such  an  event  resulting 
from  gravitation  and  momentum,  it  must  be  considered 
that  it  is  relative  attraction  that  must  decide  the  course. 
When  the  comet  approaches  the  north  pole  of  the  sun  what 
previously  was  attraction  becomes  a  repulsion,  the  polar 
region  being  the  seat  of  tremendous  negative  electric  en- 
ergy seeking  the  solar  positive  pole.  However  negative  the 
comet  may  be,  it  is  less  negative  than  the  charges  on  the 
ions  pouring  into  the  north  (positive)  pole  of  the  sun. 
(Fig.  7.)  Attraction  when  the  comet  approaches  this 
region  of  concentrated  force  becomes  relative  repulsion. 
Eelative  repulsion  can  be  demonstrated  by  the  attraction 
of  a  feather  by  a  positive  charge,  concurrently  air  being 
relatively  repelled  although  negative.  The  negative  comet 
then  sweeps  around  the  sun,  crosses  the  equatorial  plane, 
and  is  brought  under  the  influence  of  the  solar  south 


COMETS. 


69 


(negative)  pole.  No  force  of  attraction  ever  manifests 
in  such  velocity  as  the  repulsive  forces,  between  the  two 
negatives,  shown  by  the  rate  of  travel  in  the  sweep  of  the 
comet's  tail,  as  it  passes  into  the  region  of  solar  polar 
negativity.  Like  a  rifle  ball  the  comet  is  shot  into  space, 
the  tail  leading  the  way,  as  it  is  relatively  more  negative, 
back  again,  if  its  orbit  is  hyperbolic,  to  its  nebulous  home, 
where  its  elements  are  probably  diffused  never  to  reform 
as  a  cometary  body.  Could  a  comet  enter  the  solo-plane- 
tary space  from  the  outside  ?  Hardly ;  it  would  be  diffused 
into  ionic  fineness  to  the  limit  of  ponderable  cohesiveness  in 
crossing  the  boundary  where  interspacial  radiations 
equalize. 

Matter  constituting  a  comet  has  a  tendency  to  break  up 
into  sections  having  mutual  repulsion.  Sometimes  the 
nucleus  divides  into  two,  and  the  tail  also  divides  in  like 
form.  The  writer  cannot  miss  an  opportunity  to  compare 
analogous  conditions.  Let  the  astronomer  study  karyo- 


FIG.  19.  Negative  Diffusibility:  The  broken  line  indicates 
the  shape  of  the  cathode,  the  rays  from  which  diffuse  un- 
der great  decrement  of  pressure,  and  assume  the  form  of 
the  Phosphorescent  Pattern. 


70  COMETS. 

kinesis  as  manifested  in  a  human  cell,  and  watch  the  seg- 
mentation of  the  nucleolus  or  centrosome  (one  of  the  larg- 
est known  molecules) .  Let  him  see  how  the  cathode  rays, 
independently  of  anodal  attraction,  spread  out,  as  if  each 
electrified  particle  were  endowed  with  the  spirit  of  repul- 
sion. This  is  strikingly  manifested  in  Goldstein's  phos- 
phorescent patterns  of  cathodic  streams.  These  and  numer- 
ous other  phenomena  are  undoubtedly  based  on  the  principle 
of  repulsion  inherent  in  negative  units  and  exhibited  when- 
ever negative  potentials  predominate. 

If  it  be  conceived  that  matter  within  the  solo-planetary 
space  is  constituted  of  positive  and  negative  units  in  equal 
proportions,  that  these  units  are  distributed  within  the 
space  according  to  the  concentrativeness  of  the  one  kind, 
and  the  diffusibility  of  the  other  (Fig.  10),  and  that  these 
react  in  accordance  with  the  fundamental  law  of  attraction 
and  repulsion  as  reformulated  and  generalized  in  this 
article,  and  elsewhere  by  the  writer,  then,  the  differential 
phenomena  pertaining  to  the  sun,  planets  and  comets  will 
be  more  easily  comprehended. 


THE  MOON. 

The  surface  of  the  moon  nearest  the  earth  presents 
evidence  of  the  absence  of  both  ocean  and  atmosphere. 
Our  satellite  is  said  to  turn  on  its  axis  every  time  it 
revolves  in  its  orbit,  its  axial  and  orbital  revolutions  be- 
ing considered  as  periodically  equal.  It  shows  some  evi- 
dence of  polarity;  that  is,  it  slightly  turns  its  poles  al- 
ternately towards  the  earth.  All  the  evidence  obtained 
by  observation  points  to  the  moon  being  incapable  of 
sustaining  either  plant  or  animal  life,  and  this  is  the 
opinion  expressed  by  astronomers. 

The  moon  turns  on  its  axis  just  the  same  as  the  Him- 
alaya Mountains  turn  on  their  axis!  The  mountains 
keep  their  base  towards  the  earth's  center,  and  so  does 
the  moon,  and  the  same  law  of  Newtonian  attraction 
governs  both.  The  conception  of  the  earth's  circumfer- 
ence having  extended  to  the  moon's  orbit  will  render  it 
clear  that  there  is  no  axial  rotation  of  the  moon  as  an 
individual  body.  The  moon,  however,  loses  time,  and 
instead  of  revolving  in  its  orbit  every  24  hours  as  do  the 
mountains  on  the  earth's  surface,  it  takes  28  days,  owing 
to  the  resistance  of  the  sun's  forces. 

Matter  in  the  moon  undoubtedly  varies  in  its  elec- 
trical conductivity.  If  we  compare  dry  and  wet  clay 
electrodes  we  will  at  once  see  that  part  of  the  proximate 
surface  may  not  be  an  electric  conductor,  if  moisture  is 
entirely  absent,  which  Js  doubted  by  some  observers. 
Matter  in  the  interior  of  the  moon,  and  part  of  its  sur- 
face, however,  being  metallic  in  character,  must  possess 
this  property  in  a  high  degree.  Incidence  of  radiant 
energy,  conductivity  and  polarity  of  the  body,  elements 
in  the  production  of  electricity,  indicate  the  presence  of 
lunar  currents.  If  currents  are  present,  they  would 


72  THE  MOON. 

tend  to  make  the  moon  rotate  on  its  axis ;  but  the  rotation, 
if  made,  would  be  in  reference  to  the  sun  as  a  center,  not 
to  the  earth  as  a  center,  the  lunar  gravity  conditions 
would  have  to  be  overcome,  and  the  satellite  would  then 
become  an  independent  planet.  The  conditions  cannot 
be  ascertained  from  comparing  the  moon  to  the  earth 
because  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  makes  the  cen- 
ter of  gravity  at  the  geometric  center,  while  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  moon  may  be  a  point  very  near  the  proximate 
surface,  just  as  the  center  of  gravity  of  the  comet  is  within 
its  head.  The  moon's  orbital  revolution  probably  was 
primarily  identical  with  the  earth's  axial  revolution,  and 
was  the  result  of  Newtonian  attraction  between  the  earth 
and  the  sun;  and  the  reaction  of  electric  currents,  primary 
on  the  part  of  the  sun,  and  induced  on  the  part  of  the 
earth;  according  to  this  conception  the  earth  and  moon 
being  then  one  body.  The  lunar  proposition  is  that  of  a 
body  having  electric  currents  induced  by  those  of  one  cen- 
ter, while  it  is  rotating  around  another.  The  currents 
of  the  earth,  and  those  of  the  moon,  having  one  general 
direction,  do  not  repel  each  other.  Besides,  both  being 
induced,  they  are  largely  neutralized  by  the  solar  currents. 
It  is  conceivable,  however,  that  the  moon  was  entirely  a  sep- 
arate condensation  from  that  of  the  earth,  both  belonging 
to  the  same  primary  band  of  matter,  but  having  separate 
orbits.  The  smaller  body,  coming  within  the  gravitational 
influence  of  the  larger,  assumed  its  present  orbit  as  a  satel- 
lite. This  speculative  thought  does  not  in  any  way  modify 
the  conclusions  formulated  in  this  article  regarding  pres- 
ent lunar  conditions. 

Furthermore,  as  the  more  diffusive  elements  of  the 
comet  are  always  the  most  distant  from  the  center  round 
which  it  rotates,  this  may  be  the  case  with  the  elements 
of  the  moon.  The  moon  in  its  orbit  may  be  likened  to  a 


THE  MOON.  73 

comet  approaching  its  center  of  attraction,  all  of  its  ele- 
ments being  attracted,  but  in  different  degrees,  and  the 
more  diffusible  being  left  behind.  The  tendency  to  this 
arrangement  of  the  elements  is  obviated  on  the  part  of  the 
earth  (and  other  planets)  by  an  axial  rotation  which  makes 
the  earth's  atmosphere  uniformly  distributed.  The  polar 
phases  of  the  moon,  however,  may  admit  in  principle 
the  same  explanation  as  those  of  the  earth.  The  distal 
side  of  the  moon  may  have  an  atmosphere,,  may  be  an  elec- 
tric conductor,  and  may  be  the  supporter  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life.  The  evidence  is  negative,  but  deductive  rea- 
soning goes  far  to  render  it  probable  that  the  necessary 
conditions  for  the  support  of  life  are  present.  Veritably, 
if  observers  could  find  evidence  of  there  being  a  lunar 
aurora  polaris,  or  other  evidence  of  polar  charges,  the  man 
in  the  moon  would  be  no  longer  considered  mythical. 

The  polarity  of  the  moon  is  evidence  of  the  presence 
of  the  aurorae  now  or  in  the  past.  When  it  is  considered 
that  the  molecules  of  solids  are  largely  positive,  giving  a 
mass  like  the  moon  a  large  positive  potential,  it  is  incon- 
ceivable that  such  a  body  should  exist  without  attracting 
a  negative  atmosphere.  The  moon  must  be  considered  as 
an  island  at  a  distance  from  its  continent,  but  partaking  of 
the  latter's  general  character.  It  may  be  considered  as  a 
section  of  the  earth  embracing  the  atmosphere,  ocean,  and 
land,  lifted  upwards  (it  may  have  been  really  left  behind 
in  a  contraction  process)  and  presenting  its  base  to  the 
earth,  and  we  view  it  as  we  mentally  view  the  base  of  a 
mountain  from  the  earth's  center.  We  can  mentally 
picture  the  base  of  such  a  mountain  as  we  view  the  lunar 
barren  presentation,  while  the  opposite  surface  is  covered 
with  the  products  of  an  advanced  civilization.  It  may  be 
advanced  as  militating  against  the  possibility  of  life  on  the 
moon  that  the  long  (half  its  revolutionary  period)  cold 


74  THE  MOON. 

nights  and  hot  days  would  be  prohibitory,  but  the  ter- 
restrial conditions  in  the  polar  regions  are  based  on  prac- 
tically longer  days  and  nights,  and  life  is  consistent  with 
the  sequent  conditions. 

A  relatively  large  quantity  of  heat  must  be  absorbed  by 
the  surface  of  the  moon  during  its  day.  This  heat  again 
radiating  during  the  night  will  modify  the  temperature 
of  its  atmosphere,  Another  thought,  although  speculative, 
will  present  possible  conditions.  We  see  in  the  thermo- 
electric cell  (Fig.  4)  heat  applied  to  one  junction,  A,  con- 
verted into  electricity  by  differential  potentials,  and  emit- 
ted as  heat  at  another  junction,  B.  Now,  when  the  sun  is 
shining  on  the  proximate  surface  of  the  moon,  the  prox- 
imate surface  is  represented  by  junction  A;  the  polarities 
of  the  moon  are  represented  by  the  different  metals,  and 
the  opposite  surface  of  the  moon  is  represented  by  junc- 
tion B.  Clearly,  the  sun's  rays,  intensely  beating  on  dry, 
metallic  areas  of  the  proximate  lunar  surface,  are  split 
up  into  electric  currents  flowing  toward  the  lunar  poles, 
where,  instead  of  creating  aurorae  polares,  the  currents 
are  reflected  and  neutralize  in  the  equatorial  regions  on  the 
opposite  lunar  surface,  and  radiating  as  heat  therefrom, 
produce  a  warmth  throughout  the  lunar  nights.  But 
would  not  this  thermo-electric  action  take  place  conversely, 
and  warm  this  side  of  the  moon  during  its  wintery  night  ? 
No;  at  least  not  to  the  same  extent.  The  opposite  side  of 
the  moon  absorbs  heat  radiations  and  to  a  great  extent 
localizes  the  energy  as  does  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
Rays  of  light  and  heat  incident  to  the  proximate  surface 
of  the  moon  to  some  extent  are  reflected,  but  their  ether 
must  be  largely  dissociated  into  electric  currents,  there 
being  little  localization  of  energy.  Again,  would  not  sim- 
ilar thermo-electric  action  take  place  on  the  earth  ?  Again, 
no.  Such  action  is  prohibited  by  the  short  nights,  the 


THE  MOON.  75 

essential  condition  of  the  themo-electrie  cell  being  a  dif- 
ference in  the  temperature  of  the  junctions,  of  a  magnitude 
so  great  as  to  overcome  the  accompanying  resistance  to 
electric  currents.  Surely,  the  moonites  possess  a  veritable 
paradise,  their  island  home  being  heated  by  day  and  by 
night.  Is  the  long  lunar  night  a  period  of  darkness  ?  This 
query  leads  to  another  conception.  Evolutionary  processes 
in  the  moon  must  be  more  rapid  than  in  the  earth;  hence 
discoveries  are  made  by  intuitional  reasoning.  That  the 
poles  of  the  moon  were  charged  with  a  tremendous  differ- 
ence of  potential  was  probably  known  early  to  the  lunar 
inhabitants.  Therefore,  not  being  content  with  the  star- 
light of  their  long  night,  they  found  a  means  of  tapping 
this  polar  energy  and  putting  it  to  practical  uses.  Run- 
ning insulated  silver  rods  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  poles 
they  could  convey  this  electric  energy  to  the  habitable  por- 
tion of  the  moon  and  thus  by  means  of  the  electric  light 
artificially  set  their  whole  domain  ablaze.  Could  a  similar 
use  of  polar  energies  be  made  on  the  earth?  It  is  doubt- 
ful. Evidently  terrestrial  poles  are  not  so  strongly  elec- 
trified as  those  of  the  moon,  and  they  are  further  apart. 
The  problem  then  is  to  find  an  electric  conductor  that 
would  give  less  resistance  to  the  current  than  the  resist- 
ance offered  to  the  convection  currents,  chiefly  passing 
through  ether  to  the  poles  of  the  sun.  On  the  moon  from 
natural  advantages  the  problem  is  easier  of  solution.  The 
lunar  electrolytic  pole  is  evidently  electrically  charged  to 
about  its  full  capacity,  hence  slight  electrolytic  polarity  is 
manifested. 

Pressure  depending  on  gravitation  is  different  in  the 
moon  from  that  on  the  earth,  but  the  synthetic  conditions 
essential  to  an  organic  molecule  do  not  depend  on  gravi- 
tational pressure,  so  much  as  upon  the  pressure  of  inci- 
dent light  and  heat  radiations  on  a  resisting  surface.  Life 


76 


THE  Moox. 


may  be  more  ephemeral,  plants  may  assume  forms  of  in- 
conceivable delicacy,  and  the  winged  variety  of  animals 
may  predominate.  Evolution  may  follow  different  lines 
and  the  human  type  of  beings  may  evolve  along  diiferent 
pathways  to  those  followed  on  the  earth.  It  is  true  that 
the  atmosphere  must  be  less  dense  than  that  of  the  earth, 
but  gravitational  weight  is  less  for  equal  masses,  and  thus 
the  equilibrium  of  a  vital  organism  to  its  surroundings 


FIG.  20.     The  writer's  conception  of  the  distant  surface  of  the 
moon.     A  glimpse  through  our  satellite. 

may  be  similar  to  that  on  the  earth.  It  may  be  argued 
that  if  there  were  water  to  any  large  extent  on  the  moon 
it  would  be  attracted  by  the  earth  to  its  proximate  surface, 
and  in  support  of  the  argument  may  be  quoted  the  lunar 
influence  on  our  tides;  but  the  relative  position  of  the 
physical  elements  in  the  moon,  as  we  have  said,  is  regu- 
lated by  the  moon's  motion,  just  as  the  relative  position  of 


THE  Mocw.  77 

the  elements  on  the  earth  must  be  regulated  by  the  earth's 
motion,  and  as  they  are  regulated  in  a  cometary  mass,  ap- 
proaching the  sun,  by  its  motion.  As  the  moon's  motion  is 
more  like  the  comet's  motion  than  like  the  earth's,  com- 
parison must  be  made  with  the  former,  rather  than  with  the 
latter.  Nature  delights  in  differentiations,  and  has  evolved 
two  types  of  revolving  bodies,  the  planet  and  the  comet. 
The  moon  partakes  of  some  of  the  qualities  of  each.  It  is 
a  planetary  body  with  cometary  orbital  conditions. 

A  peculiar  circumstance  in  relation  to  an  intelligent 
being  on  the  moon  would  be  his  inability  to  see  the  earth, 
the  center  around  which  he  revolves.  He  could  reason 
that  such  a  center  must  exist,  and  he  might  send  expedi- 
tions to  the  margins  of  his  habitation,  just  as  we  send  ex- 
peditions towards  the  terrestrial  poles,  but  his  efforts  would 
probably  be  vain  in  getting  a  view  of  our  planet,  owing 
to  the  lunar  atmospheric  conditions. 


COSMIC  REFLECTIONS. 

A  planetary  system  would  fall  to  pieces,  like  an  oxygen 
molecule  in  a  partial  vacuum,  if  it  were  not  bolstered  up  by 
other  systems.  The  light  from  the  stars  is  evidence  of  this 
interdependence,  and  of  force  passing  from  one  system 
to  others.  The  grand  equilibrium  of  all  matter  and  all 
force  in  all  space  under  a  universal  pressure  must  be  a 
determining  factor  in  the  production  of  natural  phenomena. 
If  the  solar  system  be  accepted  as  the  celestial  unit,  then 
we  can  conceive  that  the  systems  are  arranged  in  some 
form  of  order,  in  which  their  positive  poles  in  general 
point  to  the  celestial  north,  and  their  negative  poles  to  the 
celestial  south ;  all  in  harmonious  adjustment,  each  passing 
through  independent  cycles,  but  each  exercising  a  polariz- 
ing influence  on  environing  systems;  each  possessing  all 
the  essential  forces  for  its  own  evolutionary  processes,  yet 
evolving  in  complete  unison  with  interstellar  forces.  Each 
unit  system  must  possess  a  domain  directly  proportional 
to  the  magnitude  of  its  forces,  and  must  bear  a  constant 
relationship  to  the  universal  equilibrium,  the  maintenanace 
of  which  must  furnish  a  resistance  to  the  mutual  encroach- 
ment of  planetary  systems. 

The  equilibrium  of  all  matter  in  space  must  bear  a 
certain  analogy  to  the  equilibrium  of  a  given  amount  of 
gas  in  a  partial  vacuum.  With  the  decrement  of  pressure 
the  molecules  divide  and  redivide  until  an  equilibrated  con- 
dition is  attained,  chemic  affinity  is  overcome  and  the 
law  seems  to  be : '  As  the  pressure  decreases  the  molecules 
decrease  in  dimensions  and  increase  in  potentials,  with  in- 
creased fields  of  induction  which  fill  the  space.  Up  to  the 
critical  point  the  vacuum  tube  is  occupied  by  force  from  the 
increased  potentials  of  the  dissociating  molecules,  whose 
fields  of  induction  in  the  aggregate  are  commensurate  with 


COSMIC  REFLECTIONS.  79 

the  space.  It  is  conceivable  that  if  the  solar  systems 
were  reduced  in  number  within  a  given  space  the  others 
would  so  adjust  themselves  that  all  space  would  be  filled 
with  force,  the  universal  equilibrium  being  thus  maintained 
as  the  equilibrium  in  a  partial  vacuum  is  maintained. 

Astronomers  describe  a  great  luminous  starry  band  en- 
circling the  solar  system  called  the  Galaxy  or  Milky  Way. 
This  band  apparently  is  relatively  immovable,  while  the 
solar  system  revolves  on  its  axis  within,  and  occupies  part 
of  the  area  enclosed  by  the  band.  It  was  Herschel's  opin- 
ion that  the  plane  of  the  Galaxy  bears  the  same  relation 
to  the  universe  as  the  ecliptic  plane  to  the  solar  system. 
The  galactic  plane  cuts  the  ecliptic  plane  at  an  angle  of 
about  60°. 

The  stars  in  the  celestial  vault,  as  seen  through  a  tele- 
scope, are  mostly  condensed  near  the  galactic  belt,  appear 
least  numerous  in  the  regions  most  distant  frorn^  it,  and 
more  numerous  the  nearer  the  region  is  to  it.  With  pow- 
erful telescopes  a  large  majority  of  stars  are  actually  ob- 
served in  the  Galaxy.  The  nebulae  appear  as  irregular 
masses  of  luminous  clouds,  and  appear  to  be  most  numer- 
ous where  the  stars  are  least  numerous,  or,  the  more  dis- 
tant the  region  from  the  Milky  Way  the  greater  the  num- 
ber of  nebulae  are  observed. 

If  Herschel's  idea  is  correct,  there  are  two  great  cos- 
mographical  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other :  One  drawn 
through  the  "galactic  equator,"  and  indicating,  in  general, 
the  equatorial  direction  of  the  universe;  and  the  other 
diawn  through  the  " galactic  poles"  indicating,  in  general, 
the  polar  direction  of  the  universe.  It  is  conceivable  that 
an  infinite  number  of  lines  of  infinite  length  drawn 
parallel  to  the  equatorial  line  may  pass  through  the 
equatorial  planes  of  an  infinite  number  of  galaxies.  The 
conception  may  be  expressed  thus:  At  whatever  point  of 


80  COSMIC  KEFLECTIONS. 

space  an  observer  may  be  placed,  that  point  will  be  where 
the  "equatorial  plane"  of  a  galaxy  is  cut  by  a  line  drawn 
through  its  "poles."  The  conception  implies  that  the 
view  we  have  of  the  starry  universe  is,  in  the  main,  the 
view  presented  independently  of  the  location  of  the  view- 
point. 

A  solar  system  must  vary  in  appearances:  (1)  Accord- 
ing to  the  phase  of  the  cycle  through  which  it  is  passing, 
and  (2)  according  to  whether  the  polar  or  equatorial  as- 
pect of  the  system  is  presented.  The  distance  intervening, 
the  dimensions  of  the  system,  and  the  medium  through 
which  its  light  is  transmitted,  must  be  modifying  factors. 
Accepting  our  solar  system  as  a  cosmographical  unit, 
and  keeping  in  mind  its  equatorial  and  polar  aspects,  the 
question  presents:  Whether  cosmographical  units  are 
thrown  into  space  promiscuously,  or  are  arranged  in  some 
general  order?  It  is  true  that  the  ecliptic  plane  does  not 
parallel  the  galactic  plane  as  one  might  predict;  but  if  we 
Consider  the  form  of  solo-planetary  spaces  as  being  ellip- 
tical (probably  slightly  distorted  by  cosmic  pressure),  and 
that  all  space  is  occupied,  not  only  by  matter,  but  by  solar 
systems,  then  it  is  evident  that  all  unit  systems  cannot  be 
arranged  on  exactly  parallel  lines;  although,  generally, 
their  equatorial  and  polar  planes  may  be  uniformly  dis- 
posed. Our  system  may  be  placed  so  as  to  fill  a  nook  of 
the  universe,  and  hence  the  necessity  of  its  lines  being 
oblique  to  the  general  direction.  Moreover,  if  solar  sys- 
tems are  endowed  with  the  property  of  polarity  then  their 
tendency  to  arrange  themselves  in  uniform  direction  is 
indisputable.  Thus  Herschel's  great  conception  of  the 
galactic  plane  being  an  indication  of  an  universal  order 
must  be  correct. 

If  we  mentally  picture  the  simple  arrangement  of  solar 
systems  being  placed  so  that  their  lines  in  the  main  are 


COSMIC  KEFLECTIONS.  81 

uniformly  directed,  we  will  see  that  when  we  point  our 
telescopes  in  the  general  equatorial  direction  we  are  on  the 
line  of  incidence  of  the  equatorial  blaze  of  innumerable 
Buns,  each  a  center  of  a  solo-planetary  space.  The  reflected 
light  of  their  tributary  planets,  aurorae  polares,  or  any 
other  evidence  of  planetary  systems,  we  have  not,  these 
being  darkened  by  the  relatively  brighter  light  of  their 
respective  suns.  Nor  does  it  matter  much,  except  as  to  the 
brilliancy  of  the  particular  star,  in  what  stage  of  evolu- 
tion the  system  is  presented  to  us ;  only,  if  the  solar  dimen- 
sions have  reached  that  critical  point  where  electric  energy 
is  absent  from  the  space,  the  space  will  show  as  a  celestial 
dark  spot.  Probably  the  most  brilliant  evolutionary  stage 
of  a  sun  is  when  his  dimensions  are  about  equal  to  half  of 
those  of  his  maximum  growth.  At  this  period  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  energy  is  probably  being  absorbed  at  his 
poles,  and  such  energy  will  regulate  the  intensities  of  his 
equatorial  light.  The  qualifying  term  "equatorial"  may 
be  objected  to,  as  apparently  our  sun  gives  out  light  from 
his  whole  surface,  but  it  must  be  understood  that  the 
photosphere  is  a  disperser  of  light;  and  that  we  mean  to 
convey  the  idea  that  transformation  of  electric  energy  oc- 
curs in  the  central  sun,  and  radiates  as  heat  and  light 
along  his  equatorial  plane. 

Now  let  us  turn  our  telescopes  towards  the  celestial 
north  or  celestial  south.  We  are  looking  along  the  polar 
planes  of  the  systems,  and  we  have  a  side  view  of  solo- 
planetary  wheels.  Mainly  we  are  in  the  shadows  of  polar 
energies,  although  here  and  there  the  electric  light  from 
some  great  sun  obliquely  pierces  the  spaces.  Further- 
more, in  viewing  the  polar  aspect  of  the  systems,  we  may 
be  able  to  judge,  from  polar  activities,  what  particular 
phase  of  its  cycle  a  system  is  manifesting.  If  we  could 
interpret  the  significance  of  the  manifestation?  we  might 


82  COSMIC  REFLECTIONS. 

know  th<^  relative  dimensions  of  a  sun  to  those  of  his  plan- 
etary domain.  It  is,  however,  to  be  considered  that  the 
sun's  mass  from  the  polar  aspect  may  show  as  a  relatively 
dark  spot,  radiating  energy  being  here  absorbed,  while  the 
soft  diffusive  light  may  be  the  stream  of  electrified  ions 
emanating  from  the  various  poles  of  his  tributary  planets. 
For  instance,  the  nebula  of  Lyra  presents  a  comparatively 
dark  central  area  which  may  be  a  polar  presentation  of  an 
immense  sun ;  while  the  surrounding  lighter  area  may  be  a 
polar  view  of  his  photosphere;  his  accompanying  planets 


FIG.  21.     The  Nebula  of  Lyra. 

being  outside  the  latter  area,  and  emitting  auroral  lights 
from  their  poles.  Lyra  viewed  from  its  equatorial  aspect, 
or  as  placed  in  a  galactic  arch,  may  twinkle  as  an  ordinary 
star.  The  nebula  of  Andromeda  appears  as  an  oblique 
presentation  of  a  solo-planetary  space  during  the  cyclic 
epoch  of  chemical  contraction,  when  matter  exists  in  band 
form  with  intervening  ether  spaces.  The  Andromedal  Sun 
evidently  forms  a  central  rod. 

Could  planetary  systems  revolve  around  a  common  cen- 
ter? No.  An  orbital  revolution  is  caused  by  current 
forces,  and  an  extraneous  force  sufficiently  great  to  cause 


COSMIC  REFLECTIONS.  83 

a  solar  system  to  revolve  round  it,  would  interfere  with 
intrinsic  forces,  and  produce  a  relationship  of  the  planets 
to  the  sun  such  as  the  moon's  relation  to  the  earth.  The 
forces  between  planetary  systems  are  radiating  or  static 
in  character,  and  produce  only  static  or  polarized  effects. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  heat  and  light  will  directly  pro- 
duce rotary  movements,  although  it  is  conceivable  that 
they  may  possess  a  repulsive  force,  and  thus  be  a  cause  of 
cosmic  pressure.  It  is  only  when  these  forces  are  trans- 
formed into  electric  currents  that  rotation  occurs.  The 
transformation  takes  place  through  the  presentation  of 
differential  or  polarized  potentials  to  the  incident  forces, 
and  no  such  presentation  is  made  by  a  solar  system  as  a 
whole,  although  its  individual  parts  possess  the  essential 
polarities.  Heat  or  light  passing  from  one  solar  system 
to  another  maintains  its  distinctive  character  as  a  dis- 
placement movement  or  wave  motion,  and  can  have  only 
local  effects  at  the  points  of  incidence.  In  the  broadest 
sense  of  the  term,  interstellar  forces  may  be  classified  as 
follows:  (1)  Current  forces  (electric  currents)  producing 
rotation;  radiating  forces  (heat  and  light)  producing 
chemic  and  physical  changes  in  matter;  (3)  static  forces 
producing  polarization. 

When  we  study  the  character  of  electric  charges  and 
currents  differentiated  according  to  their  positive  or  nega- 
tive quality;  when  we  study  the  chemical  and  physical 
character  of  molecules  differentiated  according  to  their 
positive  or  negative  quality;  when  we  study  the  physio- 
logic properties  of  animal  cells  and  tissues,  exhibited 
through  the  intricacies  and  delicacies  of  labyrinthian  struc- 
ture, yet  reducible  to  the  common  ana  ultimate  units  of 
attraction  and  repulsion;  and  when  we  compare  these  dif- 
ferentiations with  those  manifested  in  phenomena  pertain- 
ing to  the  sun,  planets  and  comets,  as  constituting  a  unit 


84  COSMIC  REFLECTIONS. 

system,  we  must  conclude  that,  however  complex  may  be  the 
problems  presented  for  solution,  they  must  be  solved  through 
the  formulation  of  a  hypothesis  basic  to  a  grand  generaliza- 
tion. The  writer  believes  that  the  correctness  of  his  concep- 
tion of  electric  charges  being  composed  of  differential  ele- 
mentary units  of  matter  is  evidenced  by  the  simple  facts 
of  natural  phenomena,  and  that  in  this  conception  there  is 
indicated  a  ground  work  upon  which  the  physical  structure 
of  the  universe  is  built;  leaving,  however,  untouched  the 
genetic  problems  of  unit  matter. 

The  Biblical  Genesis  might  have  been  written  thus: 
God  made  two  fundamental  units,  and  endowed  one  with 
the  spirit  of  attraction  and  the  other  with  the  spirit  of 
repulsion.  He  gave  them  relative  placement,  and  directed 
one  to  circle  to  the  right  and  the  other  to  circle  to  the  left ; 
and  behold,  the  units  in  their  multiplicity  filled  all  space. 
God  made  the  units  and  the  units  did  the  rest.  He  views 
the  work  and  pronounces  it  good.  Glory  to  the  Great  Spirit 
who  inspired  the  units. 

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